Summary

Non-signatory Zimbabwe has shown interest in the convention but it it has not taken any steps to join it. Zimbabwe last participated in a meeting of the convention in September 2019. It abstained from voting on a key United Nations (UN) resolution promoting the convention in December 2020.

Zimbabwe exported and imported cluster munitions in the past, but it is not clear if it ever used them. Prior to 1980, the defense industries of the country–then known as Rhodesia–developed and produced cluster bombs. Zimbabwe is believed to possess cluster munitions, but there is no information regarding the types and quantities stockpiled.

Policy

The Republic of Zimbabwe has not acceded to the Convention on Cluster Munitions.

Zimbabwe has shown interest in the convention and told States Parties in September 2019 that “internal processes are underway” for its “possible” accession to the convention. At the time, Zimbabwe said it had not joined largely due to reduced “logistical and technical capacity mainly due to political, economic and social challenges.”[1]

Zimbabwe participated in two regional meetings during the Oslo Process that created the Convention on Cluster Munitions, where it expressed support for a comprehensive ban without exceptions.[2] However, Zimbabwe was absent from the Dublin negotiations in May 2008 and the Oslo signing conference in December 2008.

Zimbabwe has participated as an observer in several meetings of the convention, most recently the Ninth Meeting of States Parties in Geneva in September 2019.[3] It was invited to but did not attend the first part of the convention’s Second Review Conference held virtually in November 2020.

Zimbabwe abstained from voting on the key UN General Assembly (UNGA) Resolution 75/62 in December 2020, which urged states outside the Convention on Cluster Munitions to join “as soon as possible.”[4] Zimbabwe also abstained from the annual UNGA resolution promoting the convention in 2019, after voting against it in 2015–2018.

Zimbabwe is a State Party to the Mine Ban Treaty. It is not party to the Convention on Conventional Weapons (CCW).

Use, production, transfer, and stockpiling

It is unclear if Zimbabwe has ever used cluster munitions.[5]

Jane’s Information Group has reported that the Alpha bomblet developed for the South African CB-470 cluster bomb was produced in Rhodesia and that “Zimbabwe may have quantities of the Alpha bomblet.”[6] State Parties to the convention have provided additional information on their stocks of Alpha bomblets, including Chile and Peru.

Zimbabwe is not known to have produced or exported cluster munitions since it gained full independence from the United Kingdom in 1980, but it likely possesses a stockpile. In 2010, an official informed the Cluster Munition Coalition (CMC) that Zimbabwe still possessed cluster munitions that were in the former-Rhodesia’s arsenal.[7]

Brazil transferred 104 BLG-250K and four BLG-60K cluster bombs and various components for BLG-500K, BLG-250K, and BLG-60K cluster bombs to Zimbabwe between January 2001 and May 2002, according to a Brazilian media article reviewing declassified Ministry of Defense documents.[8]

Zimbabwe may have transferred Chilean-manufactured cluster munitions to the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) in or after July 2013 according to a copy of an official shipping document.[9] The DRC signed the Convention on Cluster Munitions in March 2009 but has not ratified. As a signatory, the DRC has committed not to take any action that runs contrary to the object and purpose of the convention such as importing or otherwise receiving cluster munitions.

Zimbabwe also possesses RM-70 and BM-21 122mm surface-to-surface rocket systems, but it is not known if these include versions with submunition payloads.[10]

Jump to a specific section of the chapter:

Treaty Status | Management & Coordination | Impact (contamination & casualties) | Addressing the Impact (land release, risk education, victim assistance)

Country Summary

The Republic of Zimbabwe is contaminated by antipersonnel mines laid in the 1970s during its war for independence.

In the past, Zimbabwe’s demining program was constrained by economic sanctions, a shortage of equipment, and a lack of international assistance.[1] Between 2008 and 2017, Zimbabwe submitted a total of five requests to extend its Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 clearance deadline.

As of 31 December 2020, the remaining contamination was 34.12km². Most of this is classified as confirmed hazardous area (CHA) along the border with Mozambique with one inland minefield in Matebeleland North province.[2] This represents approximately 55% of the known contamination at the start of the extension period in January 2018 (61.79km²).[3] Zimbabwe’s Article 5 deadline is 31 December 2025.

Survey, clearance, and risk education activities are coordinated by the Zimbabwe Mine Action Centre (ZIMAC). Risk education is conducted by ZIMAC and international operators alongside clearance. A pilot project in four schools to integrate risk education into a literacy program continued in 2020. High-risk groups include communities living close to minefields and those involved in trade along the border with Mozambique.

Accessing medical and rehabilitation services in Zimbabwe is challenging for landmine victims if injuries are beyond the capacity of local healthcare services. There are only three public national rehabilitation centers, none of which are located in mine-affected regions.[4] The HALO Trust, in cooperation with other operators, works with Cassims Prosthetics to support victims.[5]

Treaty Status

Treaty status overview

Mine clearance deadline extension request

Under Article 5 of the Mine Ban Treaty, and in accordance with the eight-year extension granted in 2017, Zimbabwe is required to destroy all antipersonnel landmines within mined areas under its jurisdiction or control as soon as possible, but no later than 31 December 2025. Zimbabwe reports that it is on target to meet this deadline, but noted that the COVID-19 pandemic and the economic situation in Zimbabwe had the potential to delay clearance. ZIMAC also noted that funding levels needed to increase by up to 40% to meet the target.[6]

Management and Coordination

Mine action management and coordination

Mine action management and coordination overview[7]

Coordination

ZIMAC manages and coordinates the mine action program in Zimbabwe. In August 2019, ZIMAC was relocated from a military cantonment area, enabling access for all mine action stakeholders.[8]

The Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining (GICHD) and the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) provide training and capacity-building support to ZIMAC.[9]

A mine action working group, held monthly, discusses topics related to clearance, risk education, and victim assistance. Only two meetings were held in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[10]

Strategies and policies

Zimbabwe has a National Mine Action Strategic Plan for 2018–2025.[11] It outlines the activities, outputs, and resources required to complete clearance by 2025.[12] In March 2019, Zimbabwe also submitted an updated workplan for implementation of Article 5 of the Mine Ban Treaty.[13] ZIMAC planned to review its national strategic plan in 2021 with the support of GICHD. Operational plans are reviewed annually.[14]

The government approved a Communication and Resource Mobilization Strategic Plan, which was formulated with the assistance of GICHD in 2019. The plan was set to be launched by the Minister of Defense and War Veterans Affairs in May 2020, but this was postponed due to COVID-19.[15]

In July 2019, a joint African Union (AU) and United Nations (UN) team visited to assess the extent of Zimbabwe’s landmine problem and the assistance required to complete clearance.[16] The United Nations Mine Action Service (UNMAS) engaged with ZIMAC as a follow-up to the visit.[17]

Legislation and standards

In 2021, Zimbabwe was in the process of updating its national mine action standards in accordance with the latest International Mine Action Standards (IMAS).[18]

Information management

ZIMAC received support in 2019 from GICHD to improve the efficiency of its information management system.[19]

National and global goals

Zimbabwe aims to integrate mine action into broader national development priorities, in line with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the government’s plan for Zimbabwe to become a middle-income country by 2030.[20]

Gender and diversity

ZIMAC is working to mainstream gender considerations within mine action activities, particularly victim assistance and risk education.[21] In 2020 and 2021, Zimbabwe reported working on a gender and diversity policy for the mine action program.[22]

Mine action is bound by the national policy which gives equal opportunity to both genders and promotes women to take on roles which have typically been dominated by men. However, the mine action program falls short of the 50/50 representation required for both decision-making and operations roles.[23] Mine action data in Zimbabwe is disaggregated by age and gender.[24]

Risk education management and coordination

Risk education management and coordination overview[25]

Coordination

Risk education is coordinated by ZIMAC and included as a topic of discussion within the general Mine Action Working Group, which convenes monthly.[26] In 2020, only two coordination meetings were held due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[27] ZIMAC regularly attends risk education sessions to carry out quality assurance and quality control.[28]

Strategies

Zimbabwe has no national risk education strategy.[29]

National standards and guidelines

Zimbabwe has national standards for Mine/ERW Risk Education (ZNMAS 11), but the standards are not in line with the revised IMAS 12.10 on Risk Education.[30]

Victim assistance management and coordination

Victim assistance management and coordination overview[31]

Note: ERW=explosive remnants of war.

Coordination

In 2019, Zimbabwe created a new Department of Disability Affairs within the Ministry of Public Service, Labour, and Social Welfare. The department has the responsibility to coordinate all programs related to the welfare of persons with disabilities, including survivors of landmines and explosive remnants of war (ERW).[32] In 2020, the department was in the process of introducing disability focal points in all government ministries.[33]

Zimbabwe is yet to mobilize landmine victims to establish associations to advocate for rights and welfare.

Laws and policies

Zimbabwe reports that mine/ERW survivors are covered by the Disabled Persons Act 1992, and the National Disability Policy.[34] In 2019, nationwide consultations were carried out to amend the Disabled Persons Act in accordance with international standards and to present a revised draft and policies to key stakeholder. Meetings began in December 2019 and were concluded by March 2020.[35]

Zimbabwe’s constitution recognizes the rights of persons with disabilities, and requires the government to provide mechanisms to realize those rights,[36] but resources have been limited.[37]

Zimbabwe accessed to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) in September 2013, and committed at the 2018 Global Disability Summit to form an enabling policy framework for persons with disabilities, to ensure implementation of the CRPD at the national level.[38]

A quota in relation to the employment of persons with disabilities, including mine/ERW victims, was approved in both the National Disability Policy and the Persons with Disabilities Bill, which was under review in 2020. A budgetary allocation for disability programs across social protection services in Zimbabwe is in place, while vocational training fees are paid by the government for persons with disabilities at both public and private rehabilitation centers.[39]

Strategies

The National Mine Action Strategic Plan 2018–2025 includes victim assistance as a Strategic Goal and outlines the roles and responsibilities of relevant government ministries.[40]

Impact

Contamination

Contamination (as of December 2020)[41]

Note: ERW=explosive remnants of war.

Landmine contamination

As of 31 December 2020 ,the remaining contamination was 34.12km², most of which is classified as confirmed hazardous area (CHA) located along the border with Mozambique in five provinces, with one inland minefield in Matebeleland North Province.[42] This represents approximately 55% of the known contamination identifed in Zimbabwe’s latest Article 5 extension period in January 2018 (61.79km²).[43] All of the mined areas in Zimbabwe are known and fenced.[44]

ERW contamination

Zimbabwe also has ERW contamination, which is dealt with by military engineers.[45]

Casualties

Casualties overview[46]

Note: ERW=explosive remnants of war.

Casualties in 2020: details

In 2020, mine/ERW casualties increased in Zimbabwe, with 16 casualties, up from two in 2019.[47] ZIMAC reported that 11 casualties were a result of people tampering with ERW.[48] An incident on 1 November 2020 in Buhera, Manicaland province, killed two boys and left three girls injured. Five deminers were injured by mines in 2020. Three boys were injured in two separate incidents in June and December.[49] No casualties were reported in 2019, while three were reported in 2018.

In 2020, Zimbabwe had recorded 269 mine/ERW casualties for all time in its database, although acknowledged that the list was not exhaustive. The data did not include victims of ERW incidents in regions not contaminated by landmines.[50] In 2007, Zimbabwe stated that the total number of mine/ERW survivors in the country was estimated at 1,300.[51] Zimbabwe has acknowledged the need for a more comprehensive mine/ERW victim surveillance system.[52]

Cluster munition casualties

There have been at least three cluster munition casualties in Zimbabwe, dating to the period of the 1970s War of Liberation. In an incident documented by a former Rhodesian soldier, two children were killed and a third was injured after they found and handled an unexploded Alpha bomblet.[53]

Addressing the Impact

Mine action

Operators and service providers

Clearance operators[54]

Clearance

Land release overview[55]

Note: ERW=explosive remnants of war.

Land release: landmines

In 2020, the National Mine Clearance Unit (NMCU), the HALO Trust, Norwegian People’s Aid (NPA), APOPO, and Mines Advisory Group (MAG) released a total of 10.54km², exceeding the annual projection of 9.11km².[56] A total of 2.41km² was cleared of antipersonnel landmines, 8.1km² was reduced through technical survey, and 0.03km² was cancelled through non-technical survey.[57]

Re-survey resulted in an additional 1.97km² of contaminated land being identified in 2020.[58]

All operators prioritized clearance first in heavily-populated areas, followed by areas of economic importance or where infrastructure development projects are planned.[59]

ZIMAC reported that during the extension period, several challenges may affect projected annual land release targets and the goal of completing clearance by 2025. These include heavy rains and flooding on low-lying border minefields; shrapnel from detonated ploughshare mines slowing the pace of manual demining; diversion or reduction of anticipated demining funds; and the economic downturn, which may affect government support to the sector. ZIMAC also noted that unexpected events, such as cyclones and the COVID-19 pandemic, may also affect land release output.[60]

Zimbabwe has developed a revised workplan for 2021–2025 based on a review of annual outputs and remaining work to be completed. The national strategic plan had projected a total of 24.15km² to be released by December 2020. This target was surpassed, with 31.81km² released.[61] Zimbabwe reports that it will be able to meet its 2025 deadline, though this will depend on the availability of resources.[62]

Mechanical clearance assets, first introduced in Zimbabwe in 2016, have made clearance activities more efficient, and mine detection dogs have increased the pace of technical survey. In 2020, there were four mechanical demining teams and one mine detection dog team in operation.[63]

ZIMAC projected an increase in annual land release totals due to the start of clearance operations by APOPO in January 2021.[64]

ERW in Zimbabwe were cleared through explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) call-outs, outside of known mined areas.[65]

National COVID-19 restrictions put in place in Zimbabwe resulted in the suspension of clearance operations in 2020, and again in early 2021. It was reported that clearance operations had returned to full capacity by February 2021.[66]

Border clearance

Most of the minefields in Zimbabwe are along its border with Mozambique, although there are no challenges reported in relation to clearance of these border areas.[67]

Residual hazards

ZIMAC reports that the NMCU and Military Engineers will continue to deal with any residual risk once Zimbabwe’s Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 obligations are met.[68]

Risk education

Risk education sessions in Zimbabwe were limited in 2020 amid COVID-19 restrictions. Operators adapted by conducting door-to-door risk education and distributed fliers combining risk education and COVID-19 prevention messaging.[69] Schools were closed during much of 2020 as a result of the pandemic.[70]

Operators and service providers

Risk education operators[71]

Beneficiary numbers

Beneficiaries of risk education in 2020[72]

The COVID-19 pandemic impacted the number of risk education beneficiaries reached in 2020 in Zimbabwe, as the NMCU was not able to hold its major risk education events due to restrictions.[73] The HALO Trust reported that it held 38 community risk education sessions, compared to 52 in 2019.[74] In January–February 2021 no risk education took place, but sessions resumed in March.[75]

Target groups

Risk education in Zimbabwe is implemented in rural areas, targeting communities living adjacent to mine contaminated areas.[76] It focuses on contamination by antipersonnel and antivehicle mines, with a lesser focus on ERW.[77] Yet after the rise in the number of ERW casualties in 2020, ZIMAC reported that it would expand risk education coverage to areas contaminated with ERW, in addition to mined areas, setting a target to reach 3,000 people living in ERW contaminated areas.[78]

While there is not yet a comprehensive victim surveillance system, operators use available data to target risk education in Zimbabwe. Animal accident data is also used by operators, to understand where people might be at risk when herding animals.[79] ZIMAC reported that data disaggregated by sex and disability is used to better understand the impact of contamination on different sectors of the population. Men are thought to be the most exposed group to mine/ERW risk.[80]

Risk education was provided to men and women from Zimbabwe and Mozambique working in tea and timber estates along the border. Workers from Mozambique are seen to be particularly at risk, as they have to cross through CHA using unsafe paths.[81] Border traders are also targeted for risk education, due to their use of unofficial border crossing points to evade the payment of taxes.[82]

Other identified vulnerable groups included children who walk to and from school near the border; women and girls collecting firewood; and men and boys tending cattle.[83] Young men were targeted because of the misconception that landmines contain red mercury and can be sold for a profit, thus encouraging intentional risk behavior.[84] Due to a shortage of arable land some families were forced to farm in or near unsafe areas.[85] Cattle farmers were a target group due to cattle wandering close to minefields, exposing farmers to risk when entering contaminated areas to retrieve the animals.[86]

Delivery methods

Risk education in Zimbabwe is mainly conducted via sessions in communities and the distribution of small, printed media. The NMCU usually holds an annual risk education music gala in its areas of operation,[87] but this was cancelled in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[88]

International operators partner with ZIMAC to conduct risk education. ZIMAC and operators have also trained community and school volunteers to deliver risk education in impacted districts.[89] Risk education is combined with EOD, survey, and clearance activities and is often provided in response a mine/ERW incident occurring.[90]

Risk education is conducted in primary and secondary schools, although not as part of the school curriculum.[91] Zimbabwe reported that efforts were being made to integrate risk education into the school curriculum.[92] MAG and the HALO Trust have partnered local authorities to integrate risk education into the “Happy Reader” literacy program in schools. The program was piloted in four schools in 2019,[93] and fully implemented in 2020.[94] The HALO Trust partnered with local police to provide advice about the potential danger of antivehicle and antipersonnel mines to oxcarts.[95]

Community focal points have been trained by operators to identify and report hazards, while some have also been trained to deliver risk education sessions.[96]

Victim assistance

Victim assistance providers and activities

Victim assistance operators[97]

Needs assessment

The total number of mine/ERW victims in Zimbabwe is not known. The Department of Disability Affairs maintains a social welfare database of persons with disabilities receiving social protection services, but this does not include information on the cause of the disability. A Living Conditions Survey was carried out in Zimbabwe in 2013, which collected data on the living conditions, needs, and challenges of persons with disabilities.[98]

ZIMAC and the Department of Disability Affairs planned a National Landmine Victim Survey to provide better data on victims and the cause of accidents.[99] This survey has failed to materialize due to a lack of funding and COVID-19 restrictions.[100] There are also plans to collect data about mine victims during a national census in 2022, though implementation will depend on funding.[101]

Operators collect victim data when conducting survey and risk education. This data is shared with ZIMAC, to update the Information Management System for Mine Action (IMSMA) database.[102]

Medical care and rehabilitation

Immediate medical care for mine injuries is received at primary healthcare clinics, which will refer most cases to district hospitals for treatment. Transit of patients to referral facilities often involves long distances, as most minefields are in remote locations. ZIMAC reported that people injured by mines/ERW usually receive treatment from their nearest local district hospital or clinic. However, if injuries are beyond the capability of the local healthcare services, travel to provincial or national healthcare centers is required; including to one of five central hospitals in Zimbabwe.[103]

With the support of the Red Cross Society of Zimbabwe, healthcare workers and first-aid providers have been trained to assist in cases of injuries, but lack equipment and knowledge of landmines.[104] Clearance operators also facilitate access to mine/ERW victims in emergencies, and provide first-aid support.[105]

Limited rehabilitation services, specialist doctors, physical therapists, and prosthetics are available in rural contaminated areas. However, scarce resources are the primary obstacle to providing more comprehensive rehabilitation services.

There are three public national rehabilitation centers, which also provide assistive devices. These services are not available in the mine-affected regions. The United States (US) Department of State and Zimbabwe a National Emergency (ZANE)—a non-governmental organization (NGO) based in the United Kingdom (UK)—through funds granted to the HALO Trust and NPA, supported the travel and fitting missions of Cassims Prosthetics in Bulawayo. Indications are that annual funding will decrease in the coming years, while the collaboration between Cassims Prosthetics, the HALO Trust, and NPA remained the only reliable source of prosthetics services in Zimbabwe.[106]

Rural people and landmine survivors often cannot afford to travel to access services or spend long periods of time away from their families and livelihoods. The HALO Trust assisted in identifying mine survivors and provided prosthetic limbs locally.[107] MAG also referred victims to the HALO Trust for support.[108]

Socio-economic and psychosocial inclusion

A quota allocation for the employment of persons with disabilities is proposed in the draft National Disability Policy.[109]

Psychological services are available through provincial and national healthcare facilities, guided by Zimbabwe’s national mental health policy. Zimbabwe reported shortages in psychological and psychosocial support services, and a lack of peer-to-peer support. It indicated the need to engage associations of mine/ERW victims.[110]

The safety and protection of persons with disabilities in Zimbabwe—including mine survivors—is covered by Civil Protection Unit Emergency Response Preparedness committees, which include representation of persons with disabilities.[111]

Cross-cutting

Assistance is provided to all persons with disabilities through the Department of Social Welfare.[112] Support includes the payment of vocational training fees and medical fees, harmonized social cash transfers, the provision of educational assistance to all school-age children, loans under a revolving loan fund facility, the purchase of assistive devices, and the monthly provision of maize to persons experiencing food insecurity.[113]

Policy

The Republic of Zimbabwe signed the Mine Ban Treaty on 3 December 1997 and ratified on 18 June 1998, becoming a State Party on 1 March 1999. In January 2001, Zimbabwe enacted the Anti-Personnel Mines (Prohibition) Act 2000, which incorporates the treaty into Zimbabwe’s domestic law.[1]

Zimbabwe has provided its views on matters of interpretation and implementation related to Articles 1, 2, and 3. In May 2006, it stated that in joint military operations Zimbabwean forces will not assist or participate in planning and implementation of activities related to the use of antipersonnel mines. It said that the Mine Ban Treaty “clearly bans” foreign stockpiling and transit of antipersonnel mines, and also prohibits antivehicle mines with sensitive antihandling devices or sensitive fuzes that can function as antipersonnel mines. Finally, it said that the number of mines States Parties chose to retain should only be in the hundreds or thousands and not tens of thousands.[2]

Zimbabwe regularly attends meetings of the treaty, including the Third Review Conference in Maputo in June 2014, and more recently the Seventeenth Meeting of States Parties in Geneva in November 2018, where it provided an update on Article 5 mine clearance activities.[3] Zimbabwe also attended the intersessional meetings in Geneva in May 2019.

Zimbabwe is not party to the Convention on Conventional Weapons, nor is it party to the Convention on Cluster Munitions.

Production, transfer, stockpile destruction, and retention

The government maintains that there has been no mine production since independence.[4] Previously, government and other sources indicated that Zimbabwe was a past producer and exporter of antipersonnel mines, but not on a significant scale.[5] Production of two types of Claymore mines, the Z1 and ZAPS types, ended when Zimbabwe gained independence in 1980.[6] On 15 November 2000, Zimbabwe destroyed its stockpile of 4,092 antipersonnel mines.[7] At the time, it decided to retain 700 mines for training and development purposes (500 PMD-6 and 200 R2M2).[8] By the end of 2018, that number had been reduced to 450 (340 PMD-6 and 110 R2M2).[9]

Zimbabwe has acknowledged that it also stockpiles Claymore-type devices, but without tripwire fuzes because Zimbabwe considers these illegal under the Mine Ban Treaty.[10]

In 2019, six donors contributed US$7.9 million toward clearance operations in the Republic of Zimbabwe (32% more than in 2017).[1] All funds were allocated to clearance and risk education activities.

International contributions: 2019[2]

Note: N/A=not applicable.

In 2015–2019, the government of Zimbabwe contributed $2.7 million to its national mine action program, representing 10% of its total mine action budget.[3] International contributions have totaled some $27.7 million during that time.

In August 2017, Zimbabwe submitted its fifth Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 deadline extension request, in which it estimated approximately $130 million would be needed to carry out clearance operations in 2017–2025. Zimbabwe projected that it would contribute about $12.7 million of this total. This implies that Zimbabwe’s capacity to address its mine contamination largely depends on adequate and steady international funding.[4]

Summary of contributions: 2015–2019[5]