Somaliland

Mine Ban Policy

The Republic of Somaliland proclaimed independence from Somalia in 1991 after the fall of the government of Siad Barre. However, Somaliland is not recognized by the international community as an independent state and thus it is not in a position to accede to the Mine Ban Treaty. Somaliland authorities have frequently expressed their commitment to a mine ban since 1997.^[1]

In 2008, a bill banning antipersonnel landmines was put on the agenda of the Legislative Assembly. It was still pending consideration as of August 2008.^[2] The bill was also submitted in the last session of the Assembly in 2007.^[3] However, consensus was not achieved and it was taken off the table before a vote.^[4]

Somaliland does not produce antipersonnel mines and there have been no indications that it has exported, acquired, or used antipersonnel mines since proclaiming independence.

Officials have acknowledged the existence of a stockpile of antipersonnel mines, but have not provided information on numbers or types. Somaliland has, in the past, periodically sent stockpiled antipersonnel and antivehicle mines, among other weapons and ammunition, to demining organizations operating in Somaliland for destruction.^[5]

Landmine/ERW Problem

Somaliland is affected by landmines and explosive remnants of war (ERW) as a result of the 1964 and 1977–1978 border wars with Ethiopia, and civil wars in 1988–1991 and 1994–1995.^[6] Hargeisa, the capital of Somaliland, was heavily mined around military bases, refugee camps, private homes, and the airport. The war between Ethiopia and Somalia also left behind large amounts of UXO. Large perimeter antivehicle-mine belts surround former military camps, and there are suspected hazardous areas (SHAs) near the borders with Ethiopia, and mined roads.^[7]

A partial Landmine Impact Survey (LIS) for Somalia in 2003 identified 772 SHAs affecting 357 communities, and Phase III of the LIS identified a further 210 SHAs impacting 90 communities. The surveys found all seven regions fully or partly under the control of the government in Hargeisa (Awdal, Galbeed, Saaxil, Sanaag, Sool, Togdheer, and Woqooyi) were impacted by mines and ERW. Only Dhahar and Maydh districts of Sanaag region were not affected.^[8]

The Somaliland Mine Action Center (SMAC) considers Somaliland to be “heavily mined.”^[9] In an evaluation of European Commission (EC)-funded mine action in Africa in March–April 2007, the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining (GICHD) also concluded Somaliland had a serious mine problem. “The case for mine action in Somalia appears to have been misdiagnosed and undersold for many years. While data are sparse and sometimes inconsistent, the best available evidence indicates that Somalia (all regions of Somalia) is—relative to any other African country—significantly impacted by both landmines and UXO. It also faces major problems from abandoned ordnance (AXO) and stockpiled munitions.”^[10] The GICHD calculated that 3.6% of all deaths in 2006 in Somalia were the result of mine/ERW accidents, a rate similar to Cambodia.^[11]

In August 2008, the UN Development Programme (UNDP) estimated that up to 450 SHAs remained to be cleared. A more precise number would be known once problems with the database (see below) are resolved, due to occur by the end of 2008.^[12]

During the first half of 2008, HALO Trust resurveyed the 83 high- and medium-impacted communities and 30 low-impacted communities identified by the 2003 LIS. Based on the resurveys, HALO cancelled one-quarter of the high-impacted communities and one-third of medium-impact SHAs on the grounds that they did not exist, or no longer existed. Three senior representatives in each community signed off on the findings. Some of the tasks identified by the LIS as low-impact were judged to have a higher level of impact based on HALO’s criteria for measuring impact, and were subsequently cleared by HALO.^[13]

With pastureland the principal foundation of rural Somali livelihoods—and the most reported socio-economic blockage in the LIS—nomads and herders are the most affected. The LIS indicated that injured herders were unable to continue their work as a result of their injuries or loss of animals, resulting in economic hardship for the families of survivors.^[14]

Mine Action Program

Coordination and management

In Somaliland, mine action is organized under the office of the Vice-President. Somaliland has established an interministerial Mine Action Steering Committee involving concerned ministries.^[15] SMAC is the coordination body, which is supported by UNDP; it is also under the Office of the Vice-President.^[16]

SMAC is responsible for setting priorities and assigning tasks to HALO and the police explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) teams, the only clearance operators in Somaliland. SMAC also conducts quality assurance (QA).^[17] In 2008, UNDP planned to continue building the institutional management capacity of SMAC.^[18] The National Demining Agency (NDA) is a part of the Ministry of Defense mandated with coordinating demining, risk education (RE), clearance, and survey, but is not operational.^[19]

A major challenge facing the mine action program is updating and maintaining the Information Management System for Mine Action (IMSMA) database, which has not been updated with clearance and technical survey information conducted by HALO and Danish Demining Group (DDG) since 2003.^[20] Other problems include the lack of technical expertise at SMAC, the use of incompatible forms in previous surveys, and a lack of confidence in the accuracy of the data.^[21]

Despite the technical problems, both SMAC and UNDP recognize that the database has some practical value. Dr. Ahmed Ali Mah, the SMAC Program Manager, told Landmine Monitor the database was “operational,”^[22] and UNDP notes that while some of the information in the database is inaccurate the database is still used for mapping and reports.^[23] SMAC staff received IMSMA training in 2007.^[24]

In July 2007, UNDP recruited a consultant to reconcile the database issues but he was unable to do so during the term of the consultancy.^[25] According to UNDP, an action plan to check and review all entries in the database was adopted and it was planned to begin with the deployment of an international expert in September 2008. The action plan set the end of 2008 as the target date to have the database updated and fully functional.^[26] The 2007 LIS data is stored in a separate database.^[27]

Status of strategic mine action planning

Somaliland developed a strategic plan in 2002, which was revised following the results of Phase I of the LIS. In 2006, the plan was again updated and extended to 2010. The plan incorporates the themes of capacity-building and the rule of law found in the Somalia Reconstruction and Development Programme 2008–2012 with the aim of making the Somaliland mine action program a sustainable institution that can “coordinate, manage and implement demining activities.”^[28]

Integration of mine action with reconstruction and development

The Somalia Reconstruction and Development Programme 2008–2012 and the UN Transition Plan 2008–2009 form the framework for development in Somalia, with particular emphasis on the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. The UNDP Somalia program, in which mine action is conducted in partnership with the UN Mine Action Service (UNMAS) and UNICEF, provides mine action assistance to Somalia through the Rule of Law and Security (ROLS) Programme.^[29]

DDG shifted the focus of its mine action program in March 2008, initiating a two-year Community Safety and Enhancement Project, an awareness and prevention approach to small arms whose aim is to teach communities about the safe storage and use of weapons rather than to disarm and dispose of small arms. The ammunition disposal teams in the project continue the Village Stockpile Destruction Initiative, and have the capacity to remove and destroy UXO if found.^[30]

Mine action evaluations

In early 2007, GICHD conducted a mission to Somalia as part of its regional evaluation of EC-funded mine action in Africa.^[31] The draft report made several recommendations, including:

• UNDP/UN Office for Project Services (UNOPS) should assist SMAC in revising its mine action strategy, continue capacity development of core local capacities, and formulate an exit strategy;
• HALO should consider initiating mine clearance in Puntland, focusing on the larger minefields in the border regions of northern Mudug; and
• DDG should scale up its pilot Village Stockpile Destruction Initiative in cooperation with the police EOD teams.^[32]

All three points have since been addressed, at least partially. On 31 March, DDG scaled down its mine action program, believing the police EOD unit was capable of meeting remaining needs, an opinion shared by UNDP, which continues to build the police unit’s EOD capacity.^[33] As of July 2008, HALO was planning to clear high- and medium-impacted communities in Puntland once operations in Somaliland were complete and when the security situation allowed for safe operations.^[34]

In April 2008, GICHD conducted an evaluation of DDG’s mine action program, commissioned by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA).^[35] As of June 2008, the evaluation report was not yet publicly available.^[36]

Demining

With DDG’s shift in focus to its community safety and enhancement project in March 2008, HALO is now the primary mine clearance operator in Somaliland. A national capacity for mine clearance does not exist. The police are responsible for EOD and SMAC is responsible for QA.^[37] There are five four-person police EOD units, two based in Hargeisa, and one each in Awdal, Togdheer and Sanaag regions.^[38] In September 2007, Mines Advisory Group (MAG) completed a six-month EOD training of the five police units and ongoing operational supervision in Hargeisa.^[39]

In 2007, HALO employed 400 to 450 national staff and planned to maintain this level to address the remaining problem as long as funding was available.^[40] HALO had eight manual mine clearance teams.^[41] In August 2007, HALO recruited and trained its first seven female deminers in Somaliland, an initiative that had the support of local authorities and elders. Four additional female paramedic deminers were recruited in October 2007. After completing the training course, the first female demining section in Somaliland was established. HALO plans to recruit and train additional female deminers as funding becomes available.^[42] HALO has five front-loader machines for use in demining.^[43]

Identifying hazardous areas

In June 2007, SMAC and Survey Action Center completed Phase III of the LIS in Sool and Sanaag regions and Buuhoodle district in Togdheer region. It identified 210 SHAs in 90 impacted communities in 14 of the 16 districts in these areas. The number of SHAs reported within individual communities ranged from one to seven.^[44] No official mine clearance has occurred in this area of Somaliland since 2004 when HALO was unable to continue for funding and safety reasons.^[45]

Mine and ERW clearance in 2007 and 2008

In 2007, HALO cleared 316,847m² of mined areas, destroying 463 antipersonnel mines, 58 antivehicle mines, 819 items of UXO, and 4,369 items of AXO.^[46] HALO believes that “with increased capacities and sustained funding it is possible to clear Somaliland from the majority of high and medium priority minefields in the next three to four years.…a phased move of equipment and teams to Puntland and Somalia can be envisaged, if the political and security situation permits.”^[47] HALO has calculated that after re-surveying and re-measuring the SHAs from the LIS they are clearing just 1% (10,000m² for every 1,000,000m²) of the original estimated area.^[48]

In July 2008, HALO was on pace to double its clearance figures from 2007. HALO cited the addition of two mechanical clearance teams and the revision of its standing operating procedures on manual excavation techniques as the major factors for increasing its output. An equally important factor for the increased output for HALO since October 2007 has been the use of Minelab F3 metal detectors, which they are using on a trial basis. Previously, they had not been able to use metal detectors in Somaliland because of the high mineral content in the soil and the low level of metal in the antipersonnel and antivehicle mines. The trials involving the Minelab F3 have demonstrated the detectors can be used safely and productivity rates doubled.^[49]

Demining by HALO in Somaliland 2007–2008

EOD clearance

In 2007, the police EOD teams, tasked by SMAC, cleared 12,120m² in 46 areas, destroying 464 items of UXO. Of the UXO found, 341 (73%) were in the Hargeisa region. Since beginning operations, the five EOD teams have conducted spot clearance in 671 areas, including 400 areas identified by SMAC, and the remaining areas on request from communities. Using the 2003 LIS as the baseline, 70% of UXO-affected villages have been cleared. By end 2007, the police EOD unit had destroyed a cumulative total of 45,205 ERW.^[50]

During 2007, DDG disposed of 1,235 items of UXO during 941 community visits, as part of its Village by Village Clearance operations.^[51]

Mines and ERW found in Somaliland 1999–2007^[52]

*  All ERW are reported as UXO.
** N/R = not reported.

Demining in 2003–2007

Quality assurance

SMAC has two teams of three people each who conduct QA visits to ensure clearance standards are being met.^[53] On average, one of the SMAC QA teams visits each area HALO is clearing twice per month. After the SHA is cleared, the SMAC Operations Officer visits the site and HALO officially hands over the completion report including maps.^[54] However, based on the 1999–2006 results of DDG’s mine clearance operations as of March 2008, DDG was still waiting for QA reports from 2005, and two requests to SMAC in 2006 were still pending.^[55]

Landmine/ERW Casualties

In 2007, Landmine Monitor identified at least 97 new mine/ERW casualties in 45 incidents in Somaliland, including 26 people killed and 71 injured. Of these, SMAC recorded 72 casualties (16 people killed and 56 injured). The media reported one incident in 2007 that does not appear to be included in IMSMA in which 10 people were killed (including two women) and 15 injured when a vehicle drove over a landmine in Togdheer region.^[56]

Analysis of casualties recorded by SMAC shows that children were the largest casualty group (39 or 54%) as in previous years. Of total casualties, 49 were male and 23 female; the gender of the remainder was unknown. Of the 44 incidents that caused the casualties, 27 were from ERW, 14 antipersonnel mines, and antivehicle mines three. The majority of casualties occurred in Togdheer (31) and Hargeisa (20) regions. Activity at time of incident was not reported.^[57]

In 2007, two HALO deminers were injured in clearance accidents, but SMAC data is insufficiently detailed to verify if they are included.^[58]

In 2006, SMAC reported 96 mine/ERW casualties (30 killed and 66 injured) in 73 incidents; one-quarter more than in 2007.

Casualties continued to be reported in 2008, with the Hargeisa Group Hospital recording three casualties in February (status unknown).^[59] SMAC was not able to provide casualty data for 2008.

Data collection

SMAC records casualty data provided by local and international NGOs using IMSMA. Data collection is not complete and does not use standardized methodologies. Operators maintained their own databases.^[60] Health system statistics usually do not specify the cause of traumatic injury, but some mine/ERW casualties are reported by hospitals.^[61] SMAC community liaison officers, responsible for reporting incidents, were hampered by a lack of transportation.^[62] In 2007 and in 2008, SMAC reported, as in past years, on intentions to establish and maintain a VA database but no progress was made.^[63]

The total number of mine/ERW casualties in Somaliland is not known. SMAC recorded 374 casualties (97 killed and 277 injured) between 2003 and end 2007; 67% were children (251).^[64] DDG recorded 72 mine/ERW casualties in 32 incidents between July 2005 and the end of 2007.^[65] The Somaliland Mine Victim Association collected data on about 60 casualties.^[66]

The most comprehensive information on casualties is the LIS (Phase I, 2002–2003, and Phase III 2005–2006), recording 3,016 casualties (1,236 killed and 1,780 injured).^[67]

Landmine/ERW Risk Education

In 2007, clearance operators provided basic RE messages during clearance activities in areas identified as high risk in Phase III of the LIS, or due to a recent incident. SMAC community liaison officers provided emergency RE in response to new incidents; a police EOD team in Sool region also provided ad hoc RE. Handicap International (HI) targeted medium-risk communities not yet scheduled for clearance.^[68]

In 2007, HI, HALO, DDG, police EOD teams, and SMAC provided RE to some 40,000 people. This is a decrease from 50,749 people in 2006, but still significantly more than 14,612 in 2005.^[69]

According to the LIS Phase III (2005–2006), none of the communities surveyed in Sool and Sanaag regions had received RE, and the LIS recommended giving priority to the 27 communities with recent casualties in the two regions.^[70] In 2007, however, RE activities focused on Awdal, Hargeisa, Saaxil, and Togdheer regions as inadequate knowledge of the mine/ERW threat and the poor security situation hampered RE in Sool and Sanaag regions.^[71]

RE is coordinated through biweekly SMAC meetings with all mine action operators. HI provided technical support, training, and materials. Agencies submit RE beneficiary data to SMAC,^[72] but the RE data recorded in IMSMA was incomplete and unsuitable for planning purposes (see above Mine Action Program section).^[73]

In June 2007, HI restarted its RE program after a ten-month halt due to a lack of funding. RE activities targeted herders and pastoralists between the ages of five and 29; ^[74] HI has trained 128 community leaders, 20 local animal health workers and 62 members of civil society. Trainees were to relay RE messages to the local community. RE was also provided directly to youth volunteers, radio journalists, and 50 UNICEF Somalia staff. ^[75] HI planned to expand its program to Sool and Sanaag regions in 2008.^[76] By March 2008, HI had provided RE training to 15 members of civil society in Sool and 15 in Sanaag. HI had also provided RE training to mine action partners.^[77]

DDG provided basic RE to 9,450 people (4,461 children). As of January 2008, DDG reoriented its activities toward small arms and light weapons (SALW)^[78] and new materials for SALW/ERW education were developed in May.^[79] HALO provided RE to 7,057 people (including 2,783 boys and 2,082 girls younger than 16) in 2007 and hired two new RE staff trained by HI.^[80]

Police EOD teams provided RE to some 23,600 people in villages targeted for EOD clearance using HI materials and through local mass media, with HI facilitating the production of RE radio dramas, features, and short spots.^[81]

Victim Assistance

Victim assistance (VA) in Somaliland is limited by a lack of resources, capacity and government support. NGOs provide most of the services with international funding.^[82] Phase III of the LIS showed that only 17% of recent survivors received emergency care and none received physical rehabilitation although more than half suffered amputations.^[83]

Emergency evacuations usually take a long time and the weak referral system hinders transfers to adequate facilities. HALO and DDG have the capacity to provide emergency medical care to civilian mine/ERW casualties if needed, but they did not do so in 2007.^[84]

In Hargeisa, the Ministry of Health and Labour operated the Hargeisa Group Hospital and Borama Regional Hospital—the only facilities capable of carrying out trauma surgery.^[85] The Edna Aden Teaching Hospital in Hargeisa could also treat mine/ERW injuries but did not have an orthopedic surgeon.^[86]

There are three rehabilitation centers in Hargeisa, but due to funding shortages the OrthoHope Rehabilitation Centre ceased operations in September 2007.^[87] The Somali Red Crescent Society (SRCS) Rehabilitation Center in Hargeisa was the only prosthetics supplier.^[88]

Psychosocial support and social reintegration were virtually non-existent. Somaliland does not have qualified psychologists or psychiatrists. Physiotherapy assistants receive some basic counseling training but the General Assistance and Volunteer Organization (GAVO) is the only organization working on mental health issues.^[89]

There are no government measures to provide education or economic integration opportunities for persons with disabilities. NGOs provide some vocational training and special education but few people were reached, particularly in rural areas.^[90] Injured police or security forces receive disability pensions or other social welfare services.^[91]

Somaliland does not have disability legislation, but the constitution states that persons with disabilities and other vulnerable people will receive government support if needed. This is not implemented. ^[92]

Victim assistance strategic framework

Due to a lack of funding, SMAC was unable to develop VA initiatives.^[93] The Ministry of Family Affairs and Social Development is the focal point for disability. The Ministry of Health and Labour is responsible for medical services for persons with disabilities.^[94]

The Disability Action Network (DAN) provides physical rehabilitation through the Hargeisa Rehabilitation Center and supports physiotherapy in regional hospitals. It is mostly funded by HI and through cost-sharing.^[95]

The SRCS Rehabilitation Center, supported by the Norwegian Red Cross, provided 60 prostheses (of 196) and three orthoses to mine survivors; 664 new beneficiaries received physiotherapy. The center also operates a cost-sharing system^[96] and initiated an outreach service for rural communities.^[97]

OrthoHope assisted at least 2,250 persons with physical disabilities between January 2003 and its closure in 2007.^[98]

Support for Mine Action

Landmine Monitor is not aware of any long-term comprehensive cost estimates for meeting mine action needs (including RE and VA) in Somaliland. The government committee for mine action (the interministerial Mine Action Steering Committee) is nominally the national mine action authority in Somaliland. Details of resource requirements for Somaliland’s 2006–2010 mine action strategic plan were not available as of mid-2008.

National support for mine action

No funding by Somaliland officials was reported in 2007. Somaliland reportedly contributed an unspecified amount to the salaries of NDA personnel in 2007, but the NDA was not operational. According to SMAC, a lack of funding was the reason for the NDA’s failure to operate; the SMAC attributed lack of financial support to UN policy of not funding mine action agencies under the authority of a Ministry of Defense.^[99] The government contributed US$15,000 to the operation of SMAC in 2006.^[100]

International cooperation and assistance

In 2007, four countries reported providing $1,857,598 (€1,354,823) to mine action in Somaliland. Reported mine action funding in 2007 was 37% less than in 2006. EC funding to Somaliland totaled $1,028,388 in 2006; the EC did not contribute funds in 2007, accounting for much of the decrease in overall funds. Funding levels have declined each year since 2005, when international funding was close to $3.8 million. No reported funds in 2007 addressed VA needs in Somaliland, which remains inadequate.

2007 International Mine Action Funding to Somaliland: Monetary^[101]

DDG reported receiving €300,000 ($411,330) from the Netherlands in 2007 for ammunition and stockpile destruction.^[102]