Contamination and Impact

Mines

Sudan is contaminated with mines and explosive remnants of war (ERW), primarily as a result of more than 20 years of armed struggle between the Government of Sudan and non-state armed groups (NSAGs) in the south, mainly the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A). The struggle ended with the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) on 9 January 2005 although continued violence has raised fears of a return to conflict. The 9 January 2011 referendum on the future political structure of Sudan is a critical milestone of the CPA.[1]

Of Sudan’s 25 states, 19 have previously been suspected to be mine-affected.[2] The combination of the Landmine Impact Survey (LIS), completed in May 2009, and the UN Mine Action Office (UNMAO) records of dangerous areas, confirmed mined areas and suspected hazardous areas (SHAs) across 18 states in 2002 through June 2010 and provides the basis for the extent of the mine/ERW problem in Sudan. As of June 2010, 314 SHAs and 173 confirmed mined areas, covering a total of 75.26km²,remained to be released. Another 695 dangerous areas awaited clearance.[3] UNMAO does not measure the size of dangerous areas until clearance is completed.

The LIS was conducted in 16 states in an estimated 5,445 villages, of which 296 were identified as impacted by landmines. The survey identified 605 SHAs covering 106km². As of June 2010, through clearance and cancellation, the number of SHAs from the LIS had been reduced to 314 estimated to cover 46km².[4] Reports and surveys from operators have identified a further 500 SHAs. As of June 2010 1,182 hazardous areas remained, a decrease of 862 from June 2009. Of these, 173 were confirmed mined areas, 314 were SHAs, and 695 were dangerous areas (see table below).[5] Of the remaining dangerous areas, there are 416 suspected mined areas, 178 UXO spot-clearance tasks, 34 ammunition storage areas, 53 former confrontation areas, eight “current ambush areas,” and six where the type of contamination is unknown.[6]

The confirmed mined areas were estimated to cover some 29.5km² of land, and as of June 2010, the SHAs remaining from the LIS covered an estimated 45.8km², for a total estimated area of contamination of 75.26km².[7] This represents a decrease of 44km² since June 2009.

Prior to the LIS, the Sudanese government considered the five states of Gezira, Khartoum, Northern, Northern Kordofan, and White Nile as not being affected, and they were not surveyed as a result, although the borders with Libya and Egypt in Northern and Nile states may be contaminated with mines laid during World War II.[8]

The Government of Sudan has stated there are no landmines in Darfur region. UNMAO has identified areas of significant ERW contamination, including Tawila in North Darfur, Muhajeria in South Darfur, and Kulbus in West Darfur.[9] As of June 2010, in Darfur region 34 sites with a residual UXO threat remained to be released. The UN-African Union Hybrid operation in Darfur (UNAMID) has three clearance teams in Darfur, consisting of national and international experts conducting route assessments, general explosive hazard assessments, ERW demolitions, ERW risk education (RE) for internally displaced persons (IDPs) and civilians, and training of teachers.[10] The extent of activities is dependent on the availability of force protection, permission from the Government of Sudan, and accessibility to contaminated regions.[11]

Hazardous areas as of June 2010[12]

Cluster munition remnants

Sudan has identified 324 sites affected by cluster munition remnants in 13 states, including two sites in Darfur. Eastern Equatoria state contains more than one-third of the affected areas. As of 16 August 2010, all but 34 had been cleared. Central Equatoria, which is the most mine affected state contains 13 of the remaining 34 sites.[13]

Number of cluster munition contaminated areas in Sudan as of August 2010

Other explosive remnants of war

As of June 2010, UNMAO reported that 888,208 ERW had been found compared to 22,516 antipersonnel mines and 4,574 antivehicle mines since 2002.[14] Although a considerable amount of ERW have been found in Sudan, illustrating the intensity of the long conflict that ended in January 2005, only landmines have caused road closures.[15]  

Mine Action Program

Key institutions and operators

UNMAO is mandated by UN Security Council Resolution 1590 and the CPA to coordinate, facilitate, accredit, and conduct quality assurance of all mine action activities in Sudan until 2011.[16] The National Mine Action Authority (NMAA) is the institution responsible for coordination and management of mine action in Sudan. The NMAA[17] includes a National Mine Action Committee, a General Secretariat, the National Mine Action Center (NMAC) in Khartoum, and the Southern Sudan Demining Authority (SSDA) in Juba.[18]

UNMAO operations consist of its headquarters in Khartoum, regional offices in Kadugli in Southern Kordofan state; Juba in Central Equatoria state; Al Fasher in Northern Darfur state; and ten suboffices.[19] As part of the planning for transition to national ownership, the UNMAO office in Khartoum was in the process of relocating to the NMAA office as of 15 August 2010.[20]

The Mine Action Multi-Year Plan for 2009–2011 serves as the planning and resource mobilization document for all partners, identifying strategic priorities and benchmarks for mine action within the UN Development Assistance Framework. It also guides annual planning for the contributions to the UN Portfolio of Mine Action Projectsand the UN and Partners Work Plan. Further, it aligns plans with the goals of the Sudan Mine Action Strategic and Policy Framework as well as Sudan’s commitments under the Mine Ban Treaty.[21]

Within the structure of UNMAO, UNDP has the key responsibility for national mine action program development and capacity-building, through its “Support to Mine Action and Capacity Building in Sudan” project which began in early 2004.[22]

Cranfield University conducted a comprehensive Training Needs Assessment of NMAC and the SSDA in July 2009, and prepared a training plan. It is based on the gaps identified and includes: a mine action quality management course, a resource mobilization and resource management course, an information management course, and a process improvement course. The courses will be conducted in 2010.[23]

UNMAO and the NMAA developed a transition plan that began in 2009. Five workshops were conducted on the transition. The focus of the transition plan is to transfer the 10 core responsibilities of the mine action program to the Government of Sudan. The 10 core management responsibilities are:

1.      coordinate all aspects of mine action;

2.      prioritize, task, and authorize all mine action activities;

3.      accredit mine action organizations in accordance with National Technical Standards and Guidelines (NTSG);

4.      ensure quality management of all mine action activities;

5.      revise the national standards according to in-country needs and conditions;

6.      maintain the integrity of the national mine action database;

7.      mobilize necessary funds from national and international sources;

8.      coordinate and manage the implementation of RE;

9.      coordinate and manage assistance to survivors; and

10.  ensure that Sudan meets its obligations under the Mine Ban Treaty.[24]

The transition is divided into three stages: capacity development, joint activities, and finally full national ownership.[25] The handover for June 2011 is in the final stage and was said to be on schedule as of June 2010.[26] After the transition it is expected that the UN will respond to a Government of Sudan request to retain a small but yet to be determined number of technical advisors.[27] UNMAO projects the majority of funding after the transition will be directed toward commercial contracts for direct support to the two UN peacekeeping missions.[28]

In November 2009, the translation of the NTSG into Sudanese Arabic was completed. The translation of the guidelines was a key milestone in facilitating national ownership, scheduled to take place in June 2011.[29] Another critical part of the transition plan is to develop the national NGOs into a technically competent and well managed national demining resource.[30]

As part of the transition plan, UNMAO will equip the Joint Integrated Demining Units (JIDUs) to deal with the residual threat from landmines and ERW after June 2011.[31] The JIDUs teams consist of personnel from the engineer corps of the Sudanese army.[32]

Land Release

In 2009, organizations in Sudan cleared 5.65km² of mined areas and 5.34km² of battle areas.[33] Despite a decrease in funding in 2009 Sudan cleared almost as much contaminated area as in 2008. According to Tim Horner, Deputy Director of UNMAO in Southern Sudan, the UN has “learned to do more with less” including aggressively applying land release practices through survey before beginning clearance operations.[34] The NTSG on land release was launched in September 2009, with implementation commencing in October. In 2009, Sudan assessed a total of 988km² of land and found it to be without risk.[35]

Seven-year summary of land release

Mine clearance in 2009

As of June 2010, Sudan had 17 national and international demining operators (the JIDUs, four international NGOs, five UN peacekeeping companies, one local NGO, and six commercial demining companies).[36] UNMAO tasks all demining operators, including the five demining contingents with the UNMIS peacekeeping operation, and conducts quality assurance on all tasks.[37] UNAMID has three battle area clearance (BAC) teams in Darfur.[38]

ArmorGroup, MineTech International, and RONCO Consulting Corporation cleared 72% of the area cleared in 2009, finding 54% of all antipersonnel mines and 42% of antivehicle mines. The five UN peacekeeping contingents cleared 0.43km² (4% of all clearance) in 2009 compared to 3.99km² (41% of all clearance) in 2008.[39] During clearance in 2009, 4,561 antipersonnel mines and 898 antivehicle mines were destroyed.[40] More than three times more antivehicle mines were found in 2009 than in 2008. Approximately 80% of all clearance since 2002 has been conducted in the four most contaminated states: Central Equatoria, Kassala, Southern Kordofan, and Upper Nile.[41]

Sudan’s mine action program faces formidable challenges in 2010–2011, beginning with the fallout from the outcome of the January 2011 referendum on the future status of Southern Sudan. Although not unique to Sudan, other challenges include the size of the country, distances to travel, security, weather, capacity and funding.[42]

Mine and battle area clearance in 2009[43]

* UNMAO does not disaggregate between mine clearance and BAC in detailed reporting.

** No distinction is made between abandoned explosive ordnance and UXO in reporting on demining by UNMAO.

Roads

The verification and clearance of roads has been a major focus of the mine action program in Sudan. In 2009, a linear total of 7,152km of roads were opened.[44] As of June 2010, UNMAO had assessed 36,915km of roads and verified a further 5.25km, and the JIDUs opened another 1,698km of road, including 501km in 2009.[45] According to UNMAO, 95% of the major roads have been opened.[46]

The impact of road verification and assessment has been substantial. IDPs and refugees have returned home, travel is safer, faster, and less costly, and the cost of delivering humanitarian aid, still the primary international aid effort in Sudan, has significantly decreased for UNMIS and the World Food Programme, compared to transporting aid by air. For UNMIS alone, the savings are said to have equaled US$150 million, approximately the equivalent of the cost of the mine action component of UNMIS over the same period. In 2009, routes opened to Boma, one of the major corridors for refugees from Ethiopia and the Juba-Kajo Keji road opened to facilitate the resettlement of IDPs and refugees in Central Equatoria state.[47]

UNMAO has also responded to requests to allow for the widening and reconstruction of roads for increasing trade and commerce. In northern Sudan, route clearance facilitated the movement of refugees and IDPs, and permitted increased aid delivery. Clearance of the Kauda-Talodi road and the Kalkada to Tumbera route in Southern Kordofan, allowed communities in the surrounding areas to have better access to services provided by the government and international organizations.[48]

Clearance of cluster munition contaminated areas in 2009

UNMAO does not distinguish yet between different types of UXO in their reporting.[49] In May 2009, RONCO Consulting Corporation began clearance operations in four dangerous areas contaminated with antipersonnel and antivehicle mines and hundreds of unexploded submunitions in Ullu, Blue Nile state, a town completely surrounded by minefields with only one road. It was expected that clearance would be completed before the end of 2010.[50]

Battle area clearance in 2009

For 2009, UNMAO reported BAC of 5.74km² of land.[51]

Compliance with Article 5 of the Mine Ban Treaty

In accordance with Article 5 of the Mine Ban Treaty, Sudan is required to destroy all antipersonnel mines in mined areas under its jurisdiction or control as soon as possible, but not later than 1 April 2014.

At the Second Review Conference of the Mine Ban Treaty in Cartagena in December 2009, Sudan said the NMAA, UNMAO, and UNDP have developed a 2009–2011 operational plan that would target for clearance 80% of the high- and medium-impacted areas at a cost of $120 million.[52] Based on maintaining the demining capacity, as of June 2010 UNMAO projected Southern Sudan would clear all known mined areas by mid-2015, although the projected date could be extended depending upon the number of returnees, road access, security, and development inputs.[53]

Quality management

UNMAO is responsible for quality management of mine and BAC operations across Sudan.

Safety of demining personnel

The safety of personnel is an ongoing concern in Sudan. In 2009, field deployments, especially in Western Darfur, were hindered by “car-jackings” and armed attacks against UNAMID convoys. In Southern Sudan, violence in Malakal resulted in the disruption of clearance activities in Upper Nile, and due to tribal fighting, roads and mined areas in Jonglei state could not be addressed. As a result assets originally designated for Upper Nile and Jonglei states were relocated to the Equatoria states. Ambushes from the NSAG, the Lord’s Resistance Army, have also impacted clearance operations in Central and Western Equatoria states.[54]

Other Risk Reduction Measures

The National Mine Action Strategic Framework for Sudan for 2006–2011 commits Sudan to provide mine/ERW RE to communities at risk and to strengthen the national operations capacities in delivering RE. Within the UNMAO framework, UNICEF is responsible for the management and coordination of RE, together with NMAC and the SSDA, and implemented by the government and national and international NGO partners.[55]

In 2009, 394,836 children and adults in 20 states were said to have received RE, of which 77% were in seven states.[56] IDPs and returnees remained the key focus of mine and ERW RE. It is planned the Government of Sudan will be responsible for RE after the transition in June 2011.[57]