Country Summary

The Republic of Zimbabwe is contaminated by antipersonnel landmines laid in the 1970s during its war for independence.

In the past, Zimbabwe’s demining program was constrained by economic sanctions, a shortage of equipment, and a lack of international assistance. Zimbabwe submitted a total of five requests to extend its Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 clearance deadline.

As of end 2021, remaining contamination totaled 23.51km². All six remaining minefields are classified as confirmed hazardous area (CHA), with five located along the eastern border with Mozambique and one inland in Matebeleland North province.

Zimbabwe’s Article 5 clearance deadline is 31 December 2025. Financial sustainability remains a key challenge for Zimbabwe in meeting this deadline.

Survey, clearance, and risk education activities are coordinated by the Zimbabwe Mine Action Centre (ZIMAC). Risk education is conducted by ZIMAC and international operators alongside demining. High-risk groups include communities living close to minefields and those involved in trade along the border with Mozambique. Implementation of risk education in 2021 continued to be affected by COVID-19 restrictions.

Accessing medical and rehabilitation services in Zimbabwe is challenging for landmine victims if their injuries are beyond the capacity of local health services. There are only three public national rehabilitation centers, none of which are located in the mine-affected areas.The HALO Trust has worked with Cassims Prosthetics to support travel and fitting missions in Zimbabwe, but in 2021 no assistance was provided.

Impact

Contamination

Contamination (as of December 2021)[1]

Note: CHA=confirmed hazardous area; ERW=explosive remnants of war.

Landmine contamination

As of 31 December 2021, the remaining landmine contamination in Zimbabwe totaled 23.51km², all of which was classified as CHA. These contaminated areas are located along the border with Mozambique in four provinces, with one inland minefield in Matebeleland North province.[2] The amount of remaining contaminated land represents approximately 38% of known contamination (61.79km²) that was identified in January 2018, at the start of Zimbabwe’s latest extension period for clearance under Article 5 of the Mine Ban Treaty .[3]

ERW contamination

Zimbabwe also has ERW contamination, which is dealt with by the Military Engineers.[4] The full extent of this contamination is unknown.

As of 2021, Zimbabwe had recorded 272 mine/ERW casualties for all time in its database, though acknowledged that the list was not exhaustive. This data does not include victims of ERW incidents in regions not contaminated by landmines.[5] In 2007, Zimbabwe reported that the total number of mine/ERW survivors in the country was estimated at around 1,300.[6] Zimbabwe has acknowledged the need for a more comprehensive mine/ERW victim surveillance system.[7]

Casualties

Between 1964 and 2021, the Monitor recorded a total of 1,638 mine/ERW casualties.

Casualties in 2021[8]

Casualties in 2021

During 2021, three casualties were recorded in Zimbabwe; a decrease from 16 in 2020.[9] All three casualties were due to demining accidents caused by antipersonnel mines.[10] In Bulawayo province, a grenade exploded whilst workers were burning grass and rubbish at Ntshamathe Primary School, but did not cause casualties.[11] No mine/ERW casualties were reported in Zimbabwe in 2019, while three were reported in 2018.

Cluster munition casualties

There have been at least three recorded cluster munition casualties in Zimbabwe, dating to the period of the 1970s War of Liberation. In an incident documented by a former Rhodesian soldier, two children were killed and one was injured after they found and handled an unexploded Alpha bomblet.[12] It is likely that further cluster munition casualties in Zimbabwe went unrecorded.

Management and Coordination

Mine action management and coordination

Mine action management and coordination overview[13]

Coordination

ZIMAC manages and coordinates the mine action program in Zimbabwe. In August 2019, ZIMAC was relocated from a military cantonment area, enabling access for all mine action stakeholders.[14]

The Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining (GICHD) has provided training and capacity-building support to ZIMAC.[15]

Technical coordination meetings, intended to be held quarterly, discuss topics related to clearance, risk education, and victim assistance. Yet only one meeting was held during 2021. A stakeholder coordination meeting is also intended to be held quarterly, but only two meetings were held during 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[16]

Strategies and policies

Zimbabwe’s National Mine Action Strategic Plan outlines the activities, outputs, and resources required to complete clearance by 2025.[17] In March 2019, Zimbabwe also submitted an updated workplan for implementation of Article 5.[18] ZIMAC undertook a mid-term review of the strategic plan in November 2021, with support from GICHD.[19] Operational plans are reviewed annually.[20]

The government has approved a Communication and Resource Mobilization Strategic Plan, which was formulated with assistance from GICHD in 2019. It was set to be launched by the Minister of Defense and War Veterans Affairs in May 2020; however, this was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[21]

Legislation and standards

Zimbabwe had planned to update its national mine action standards in accordance with the latest International Mine Action Standards (IMAS) in 2021, but this was postponed until 2022. Standards on mine detection dogs and mechanical clearance will be the first to be updated.[22]

Information management

During 2019, GICHD supported ZIMAC to improve the efficiency of its Information Management System for Mine Action (IMSMA).[23] In 2022, ZIMAC reported that its database was up to date.[24]

National and global goals

Zimbabwe aims to integrate mine action into broader national development priorities, in line with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and its plan to achieve upper-middle-income country status by 2030.[25]

Gender and diversity

ZIMAC is working to mainstream gender considerations within mine action activities, particularly victim assistance and risk education.[26] In 2020, Zimbabwe reported having plans to work on a gender and diversity policy for its mine action program.[27] Gender and diversity is included within the National Mine Action Strategic Plan for 2018–2025.[28]

Mine action in Zimbabwe is bound by the national policy to give equal opportunity to both genders and promote women to take on roles which have typically been dominated by men. However, the mine action program falls short of a 50/50 representation target for decision-making and operations roles.[29] Mine action data in Zimbabwe is disaggregated by age and gender.[30]

Risk education management and coordination

Risk education management and coordination overview[31]

Coordination

Risk education is coordinated by ZIMAC, and is included as a topic of discussion within the Mine Action Working Group, which convenes monthly.[32] During 2021, four coordination meetings were held, with a focus on how to conduct risk education safely during the COVID-19 pandemic.[33]

ZIMAC regularly attends risk education sessions to carry out quality assurance and control.[34]

Strategies

Risk education is included within the National Mine Action Strategic Plan 2018–2025.[35] ZIMAC planned to develop and implement a new risk education strategy to better reach populations across the country, due to the threat from explosive remnants of war (ERW).[36]

National standards and guidelines

Zimbabwe’s national standard for mine/ERW risk education was updated in June 2022.[37]

Victim assistance management and coordination

Victim assistance management and coordination overview[38]

Coordination

In 2019, Zimbabwe created a new Department of Disability Affairs, within the Ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare. It coordinates all programs related to the welfare of persons with disabilities, including mine/ERW survivors.[39] During 2020–2021, the department was in the process of introducing disability focal points in all government ministries.[40]

Zimbabwe is yet to mobilize victims to establish associations to advocate for rights and welfare.[41]

Laws and policies

Mine/ERW survivors in Zimbabwe are covered by the National Disability Policy and the Disabled Persons Act 1992.[42] In 2019–2020, nationwide consultations aimed to amend this law in accordance with international standards and present new policies and a revised draft of the law to key stakeholders.[43] The National Disability Policy was adopted in 2021 and is inclusive of the needs and rights of mine/ERW victims.

Zimbabwe’s constitution recognizes the rights of persons with disabilities and requires the government to provide mechanisms to realize those rights.[44] Resources, however, are limited.[45]

Zimbabwe acceded to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) in 2013, and committed at the 2018 Global Disability Summit to enact national-level policies to implement the CRPD.[46] In 2021, Zimbabwe was in the process of aligning legislation with the CRPD.[47]

An employment quota, aimed at ensuring persons with disabilities make up 10% of the workforce, was approved in May 2021. However, government offices in Zimbabwe had only limited facilities and lacked access for persons with disabilities.[48]

Vocational training fees are paid by the government for persons with disabilities at both public and private rehabilitation centers.[49] Funding constraints prevent the implementation of a full program to support the rehabilitation of mine/ERW victims.[50]

A policy to ensure accessibility for persons with disabilities to new buildings was being developed by the Ministry of Local Government and Public Works in 2022.[51] Yet ramps were unavailable in most existing schools, preventing children with disabilities from attending.[52]

Strategies

The National Mine Action Strategic Plan 2018–2025 includes victim assistance as a Strategic Goal and outlines the roles and responsibilities of government ministries.[53]

Addressing the Impact

Mine action

Clearance operators

Clearance operators[54]

Land release in 2021

In 2021, the National Mine Clearance Unit (NMCU), the HALO Trust, Norwegian People’s Aid (NPA), APOPO, and Mines Advisory Group (MAG) released a total of 11.28km², exceeding the annual projection of 7.72km².[55] A total of 2.44km² was cleared of antipersonnel landmines, while 3.17km² was reduced through technical survey and 5.67km² was cancelled through non-technical survey.[56]

Land release in 2021[57]

Note: APM=antipersonnel mine and ERW=explosive remnants of war.

Mount Darwin district, in Mashonaland Central province, was declared mine-free in November 2021.[58]

Re-survey resulted in an additional 0.45km² of contaminated land being identified in 2021.[59]

All operators prioritized clearance first in heavily populated areas, followed by areas of economic importance or where infrastructure development projects were planned.[60]

Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 clearance deadline

Under Article 5 of the Mine Ban Treaty, and in accordance with the eight-year deadline extension granted in 2017, Zimbabwe must clear and destroy all antipersonnel landmines within mined areas under its jurisdiction or control by 31 December 2025. Zimbabwe reported that it is on target to meet this deadline, with 38% of known contamination left to clear as of end 2021.[61]

Five-year landmine clearance overview

Yet in 2022, ZIMAC reported that during the extension period, several challenges might affect projected annual land release targets and the goal of completing clearance by 2025. These include heavy rains and flooding on low-lying border minefields; shrapnel from detonated ploughshare mines slowing the pace of manual demining; diversion or reduction of anticipated demining funds; and the economic downturn, which may affect government support to the sector. ZIMAC also noted that unexpected events, such as cyclones and the COVID-19 pandemic, could also affect land release output.[62]

Zimbabwe has developed a revised workplan for 2021–2025 based on a review of annual outputs and remaining work to be completed. The national strategic plan had projected a total of 33.33km² to be released by the end of 2021. This target was surpassed, with 47.46km² released in total (42% more than projected).[63]

Mechanical clearance assets, first introduced in Zimbabwe during 2016, have made demining more efficient. Mine detection dogs have increased the pace of technical survey. In 2021, a total of three mechanical demining teams and one mine detection dog team were operational in Zimbabwe.[64]

ZIMAC projected an increase in annual land release totals due to the start of clearance operations by APOPO in December 2020. Yet this did not transpire due to reduced funding by the UK’s FCDO, which resulted in decreased clearance capacity among other operators.[65] Figures for reduction via technical survey are projected to decrease in the coming years, due to the remaining contaminated areas being clearly defined.[66]

ERW are cleared through explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) call-outs, outside of mined areas.[67]

COVID-19 restrictions in Zimbabwe resulted in the suspension of clearance operations in 2020, and again in early 2021. Clearance operations had returned to full capacity by February 2021, yet further time was lost due to outbreaks of COVID-19 among deminers.[68]

Border clearance

Most of the minefields in Zimbabwe are along its border with Mozambique, although there are no challenges reported in relation to clearance of these border areas.[69]

Residual hazards

ZIMAC reports that the NMCU and Military Engineers will continue to deal with any residual risk once Zimbabwe’s Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 clearance obligations are met.[70]

Risk education

Operators

Risk education operators[71]

Beneficiary numbers

Beneficiaries of risk education in 2021[72]

COVID-19 restrictions imposed in Zimbabwe impacted the number of risk education beneficiaries reached in 2020 and 2021. The NMCU was not able to hold its risk education events, and a house-to-house approach was adopted by other operators to avoid large gatherings.[73] Only MAG reported providing persons with disabilities with risk education in 2021, reaching 11 adults (a woman and 10 men). No risk education took place in January–February 2021; sessions resumed in March.[74]

Implementation

Target groups

Risk education in Zimbabwe is implemented in rural areas, targeting communities living adjacent to mine contaminated areas.[75] The focus of messaging was on contamination by antipersonnel and antivehicle mines, with a lesser focus on ERW.[76] After the rise in ERW casualties in 2020, ZIMAC reported that it would expand risk education coverage to areas contaminated with ERW, in addition to mined areas, setting a target to reach 3,000 people living in ERW contaminated areas.[77]

While there is no comprehensive victim surveillance system, operators used available data to target risk education. Animal accident data was also used by operators, to understand where people might be at risk when herding animals.[78] ZIMAC reported that data disaggregated by sex and disability was used to better understand the impact of contamination on different sectors of the population.

Risk education was provided to men and women from Zimbabwe and Mozambique working in tea and timber estates along the border. Workers from Mozambique were viewed to be particularly at risk, as they often crossed through CHA using unsafe paths.[79] Border traders were targeted for risk education, due to their use of unofficial crossing points to avoid the payment of taxes.[80] Residents of border communities were also at risk when crossing the border to visit family members and relatives, and to access education and social services.[81]

Other identified vulnerable groups included children walking to and from school near the border; women and girls collecting firewood and water; and men and boys tending cattle.[82] Men were thought to be the highest-risk group, due to livelihood activities taking them into mined areas.[83] This included cutting trees for charcoal production and brick-making, clearing land for subsistence farming, and hunting.[84] Young men were targeted because of the misconception that mines contain red mercury and can be sold for a profit, thus encouraging intentional risk-taking behavior.[85]

Due to a shortage of arable land, some families were forced to farm in or near unsafe areas.[86] Cattle farmers were exposed to mine/ERW risk when they entered contaminated areas to retrieve cattle.[87] During 2021, more than 20 cattle strayed into mined areas in Mashonaland Central province.[88]

Delivery methods

Risk education in Zimbabwe is primarily conducted via sessions held in communities, and via the distribution of small, printed media. The NMCU usually holds an annual risk education music gala in its areas of operation, but this was cancelled in 2020–2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[89]
International operators partner with ZIMAC to conduct risk education. Risk education is combined with EOD, survey, and clearance activities and is often provided as a direct response to mine/ERW incidents.[90]

Risk education was conducted in primary and secondary schools in affected areas, although not as part of the formal school curriculum.[91] Zimbabwe had reported that efforts were being made to integrate risk education into the school curriculum, but the plan was not implemented due to the number of schools in affected areas being too few.[92] MAG and the HALO Trust partnered local authorities via the “Happy Readers” initiative to integrate risk education into the literacy program in schools. The program was piloted in four schools in 2019,[93] and fully implemented in 2020.[94]

The HALO Trust partnered with local police in Zimbabwe to provide advice about the dangers of antivehicle and antipersonnel mines to oxcarts.[95]

Community focal points have been trained by ZIMAC and operators to identify and report hazards, while some have also been trained to deliver risk education sessions.[96]

Few people among those affected by landmines in remote border areas had access to social media, while literacy rates were low. Digital risk education methods were not employed in Zimbabwe in 2021, but were discussed by ZIMAC and operators as a potential way to reach people if COVID-19 restrictions persisted.[97]

In 2021, operators in Zimbabwe conducted interviews and focus group discussions before and after mine/ERW risk education sessions to gauge knowledge retention.[98]

Key developments in 2021

The COVID-19 pandemic continued to impact the delivery of risk education in 2021. Schools were closed for much of the year, and public gatherings were restricted. MAG conducted risk education using a vehicle with a public address system.[99] NPA focused on developing a household survey to plan future risk education activities.[100]

During 2021, the HALO Trust distributed 4,000 copies of the “Happy Readers” minefield book to 18 schools in areas with landmine contamination in Mashonaland Central province. Teachers and school leaders were trained on how to use the book and deliver risk education messaging.[101]

Victim assistance

Victim assistance providers[102]

Needs assessment

The total number of mine/ERW victims in Zimbabwe is not known. The Department of Disability Affairs maintains a database of persons with disabilities receiving social protection services, but this does not record the cause of the disability. A Living Conditions Survey, undertaken in 2013, collected data on the needs and challenges of persons with disabilities in Zimbabwe.[103]

ZIMAC and the Department of Disability Affairs planned a National Landmine Victim Survey to provide better data on victims and the cause of accidents.[104] This survey failed to materialize due to the lack of funding and COVID-19 restrictions in 2020–2021.[105] The Department of Disability Affairs included questions on cause of disability in the national census held in April 2022.[106]

Operators collect victim data when conducting survey and risk education activities, and report this to ZIMAC for inclusion on the IMSMA database.[107] ZIMAC and operators also reported victims in remote areas for registration with the Department of Disability Affairs in 2021.[108]

Medical care and rehabilitation

Immediate medical care for mine or ERW injuries is provided at primary healthcare clinics, which then refer most cases to district hospitals for treatment. Transit of patients to referral facilities often involves long distances, as most minefields are in remote locations. ZIMAC reported that people injured by mines/ERW usually receive treatment at their nearest local district hospital or clinic. Yet if their injuries are beyond the capabilities of local healthcare services, travel to provincial or national healthcare centers is required, including to one of five central hospitals in Zimbabwe.[109]

With the support of the Red Cross Society of Zimbabwe, healthcare workers and first-aid providers have been trained to assist in cases of injuries, but lack equipment and knowledge of landmines.[110] Clearance operators also facilitate access to mine/ERW victims in emergencies, and provide first-aid support.[111] The government ambulance system was reported to cover all districts in 2021.[112]

Limited rehabilitation services, specialist doctors, physical therapists, and prosthetics are available in contaminated rural areas. Yet these services are not comprehensive as resources are scarce.

There are three public national rehabilitation centers in Zimbabwe, which also provide assistive devices. These services are not available in the mine-affected regions, and rural residents and mine survivors oftenå cannot afford to travel to access services or spend long periods away from home. The United States (US) Department of State and UK-based non-governmental organization (NGO) Zimbabwe a National Emergency (ZANE)å both supported the travel and fitting missions of Cassims Prosthetics in Bulawayo, through funds granted to NPA and the HALO Trust. This arrangement constituted the only reliable source of prosthetics services in Zimbabwe,[113] but it was reported that no assistance was provided in 2021.[114] HALO Trust Zimbabwe had supported the provision of prosthetic limbs to 120 landmine survivors, in cooperation with Cassims Prosthetics, between 2015 and 2021.[115]

Socio-economic and psychosocial inclusion

Psychological support services are available through provincial and national healthcare facilities, guided by Zimbabwe’s national mental health policy. There are shortages in both psychological and psychosocial support services, while peer-to-peer support is also lacking. Zimbabwe has indicated the need to engage associations of mine/ERW victims.[116]

Cross-cutting

Assistance is provided to all persons with disabilities through the Department of Social Welfare.[117] Support includes the payment of vocational training and medical fees, cash transfers, educational assistance for all school-age children, loans, assistive devices, and the monthly provision of maize to persons experiencing food insecurity.[118]