Country Summary   

Cambodia remains one of the world’s most affected states due to contamination by mines, cluster munition remnants, and explosive remnants of war (ERW), as a result of conflict from the 1960s until the 1990s. As of the end of 2022, Cambodia had identified 681.28km² of land contaminated with antipersonnel landmines and 741.07km² contaminated with cluster munition remnants.[1]

As a State Party to the Mine Ban Treaty, Cambodia is obligated to clear its remaining antipersonnel landmine contamination by its Article 5 clearance deadline of 31 December 2025. Cambodia has not communicated a detailed plan to complete clearance of cluster munition remnants.[2]

Ten operators or agencies, including the Cambodian National Police, conduct risk education in the country to address the threat posed by mines in the northwest and cluster munition remnants in the northeast.[3] Men and boys who enter forested areas to forage, operate agricultural machinery while at work, or tamper with ERW for use as scrap metal are considered the primary at-risk group.[4]

Mine/ERW survivors in Cambodia have access to medical care and rehabilitation, and to a lesser extent benefit from socio-economic and psychosocial inclusion services. Victim assistance efforts are coordinated by the Cambodian Mine Action and Victim Assistance Authority (CMAA).[5]

Assessing the Impact

Contamination

     Extent of contamination (as of December 2022)[6]

Note: N/A=not applicable; ERW=explosive remnants of war; CHA=confirmed hazardous area; SHA=suspected hazardous area.

Landmine contamination

Cambodia has extensive landmine contamination due to three decades of armed conflict, from the 1960s until 1998. The northwest region, bordering Thailand, is heavily affected by mines.

Cambodia conducted a baseline survey between 2009 and 2020.[7] As of the end of 2020, it reported 8,923 suspected hazardous areas (SHAs) totaling 801.6km².[8] During 2021 and 2022, as a result of further non-technical and technical survey, an additional 1,141 SHAs were identified in areas that were not previously accessible or where data was lacking, accounting for 160.64km². After land release activities, as of the end of 2022, Cambodia reported 7,392 SHAs totaling 681.28km². This included newly-identified areas, which remained subject to verification by the CMAA.[9]

Cluster munition remnant contamination

Cambodia has extensive cluster munition remnant contamination, but the full extent is not known. This results from intensive bombing raids by the United States (US) during the Vietnam War, and is concentrated in Cambodia’s northeast along its borders with Lao PDR and Vietnam.

As of the end of 2022, the CMAA reported 741.07km² of cluster munition remnant contamination, of which 154.42km² was classified as confirmed hazardous area (CHA) and 586.65km² as SHA.[10]

This, despite the land release activities conducted throughout 2022, signifies an increase of the total cluster munition remnants contamination of 42.38km² compared to the area reported as of December 2021.[11]    

Other contamination

Through survey conducted in 2022, a total of 13.93km² was newly-classified as contaminated by antivehicle mines or ERW other than cluster munitions remnants. As of the end of 2022, a total of 33.13km² of land was reported as contaminated by antivehicle mines and 593.07km² by ERW.[12]

Casualties

The Monitor has recorded a total of 65,005 mine/ERW casualties in Cambodia between 1979 and the end of 2022.[13] Of the casualties where the survival outcome was recorded, 29,605 were killed and 21,357 were injured.

5-year casualties total: 2018–2022[14]

     Casualties in 2022[15]

Casualty demographics in 2022

Casualties by civilian status in 2022

Casualties by device type in 2022

Note: APM=antipersonnel mine; AVM=antivehicle mine; CMR=cluster munition remnant; ERW=explosive remnant of war.

The CMAA recorded 41 mine/ERW casualties in 2022 through the Cambodian Mine/ERW Victim Information System (CMVIS). This marked a decrease from 44 casualties in 2021, and 65 in 2020. In 2022, ERW accounted for the highest number of casualties (22), followed by antivehicle mines (15) and antipersonnel mines (four). Eighteen casualties occurred while the victim was taking part in livelihood activities, while 13 casualties occurred due to the handling of explosive ordnance.

Three deminers were killed and one injured, all in the same incident, while handling an antivehicle mine during an explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) task in January 2022 in Preah Vihear province.

Cluster munition casualties

The total number of cluster munition casualties in Cambodia for all time (both directly from cluster munition attacks and due to remnants) is likely far higher than recorded, and is estimated to be up to 1,000. Data collection is limited, although Cambodia is among the countries worst affected by cluster munitions.[16] No cluster munition remnant casualties were recorded in Cambodia in 2021–2022. One casualty was recorded in 2020, in Stung Treng province, while none were recorded in 2018–2019.[17] In total, since 2010, there have been 17 cluster munition remnant casualties.[18]

Coordination

     Summary table[19]

Addressing the Impact

Clearance

Highlights from 2022

During 2022, Cambodia released a total of 191.54km² of mine contaminated land, surpassing the 179km² projected during the intersessional meetings in June 2022.[20] Of this, 88.47km² was cleared, resulting in the destruction of 13,708 antipersonnel mines. A total of 70.79km² of land was reduced by technical survey, representing a significant increase from 11.2km² in 2021. This was the result of efforts by the CMAA to encourage clearance operators to ensure land release methodologies were fully compliant with the International Mine Action Standards (IMAS).[21]

Cambodia released 46.42km² of cluster munition contaminated land in 2022, but did not achieve its 2018–2025 annual land release target of 62km² per year. Nevertheless, Cambodia released the highest amount of cluster munition contaminated land since 2018.[22]

Management and coordination

The CMAA was established in 2000 and oversees the regulation, planning, coordination, and monitoring of Cambodia’s mine action sector.

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has partnered with the CMAA since 2006, through the Clearing for Results project. The project is currently in its fourth phase (2020–2025), titled “Mine Action for Human Development,” and supports activities to declare affected villages mine-free, align mine action with development activities, and strengthen national capacity to deal with residual risks.[23] It is predominantly funded by the Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA), which provided US$10 million to the project for 2021–2025.[24]

The CMAA also receives capacity-building support from Norwegian People’s Aid (NPA) and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Regional Mine Action Center (ARMAC).[25]

Legislation and standards

There are 16 national Cambodian Mine Action Standards (CMAS), which are aligned with IMAS. In 2022, a standard on environmental management was adopted. Cambodia also drafted a standard on gender and diversity mainstreaming, expected to be adopted in 2023, with support from the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining (GICHD).[26] A victim assistance standard was drafted but is not yet finalized.[27] The CMAS on Baseline Survey has been reviewed to better reflect new circumstances and challenges in the field, with an updated draft still to be adopted.[28]

Strategies and policies

Cambodia’s National Mine Action Strategy 2018–2025 seeks to ensure effective targeting of assets for clearance, stipulating that at least 75% of mine action funding should be allocated to communes prioritized by the CMAA for clearance.[29] The strategy is harmonized with broader development plans.[30] In 2000, Cambodia set a Millenium Development Goal (MDG) on demining and victim assistance. It has also adopted Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 18, which aims to end the negative impact of mines/ERW.[31]

A three-year mine action Implementation Plan, covering 2021–2023, was adopted in 2021.[32]

During the Mine Ban Treaty intersessional meetings in June 2022, Cambodia presented an updated workplan for 2023–2025 on the implementation of Article 5.[33] A revised version was submitted in May 2023. It projects that, with the required funding, Cambodia will meet its Article 5 obligations by the end of 2025. It does not address contamination by cluster munition remnants and ERW, and highlights unsolved challenges related to un‐demarcated areas, preventing clearance of minefields along the border with Thailand.[34]

Information management

All operators have submitted clearance data to the CMAA using a standard reporting format since 2008.[35] The CMAA has been using Information Management System for Mine Action (IMSMA) Next Generation since 2014. It worked on the implementation of IMSMA Core during 2022, with support from GICHD.[36] CMAA Database Unit staff received further training in 2022.[37]

Gender and diversity

Goal 8 of the national strategy includes the mainstreaming of gender and environmental protection within mine action.[38] With support from UNDP and GICHD, the CMAA has updated its existing Gender Mainstreaming in Mine Action Plan (GMAP) for 2021–2025.[39] The Technical Reference Group on Gender Mainstreaming in Mine Action held a meeting in 2022 to discuss challenges.[40]

UNDP continues to support the CMAA in promoting gender and diversity mainstreaming. In 2022, it produced a video to advocate for women’s participation in mine action in Cambodia.[41]

Clearance operators

In 2022, four international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) worked as clearance operators in Cambodia: the HALO Trust, Mines Advisory Group (MAG), NPA, and APOPO.

The Cambodian Mine Action Center (CMAC), Cambodian Self-Help Demining (CSHD), the Royal Cambodian Armed Forces (RCAF), and the National Center for Peacekeeping Forces, Mine, and ERW Clearance (NPMEC) also conducted clearance as national operators. In addition, a small number of commercial operators worked for private investors rather than in the humanitarian mine action sector, with data from these projects not included in the national database.[42]

Land release: antipersonnel landmine

2022 land release overview: landmines[43]

 Note: APM=antipersonnel mines.

 In 2022, Cambodia released a total of 191.54km² of land contaminated with antipersonnel mines. Of this total, 46% was cleared, 37% was reduced through technical survey, and 17% was cancelled through non-technical survey. A total of 13,708 antipersonnel mines were destroyed in 2022.[44] 

Five-year landmine clearance: 2018­–2022[45]

Cambodia’s annual land release total has increased each year since 2019. In 2022, clearance totaled 88.47km², up from 58.9km² in 2021. Land reduced through technical survey increased markedly from 11.2km² to 70.79km², while land cancelled fell slightly from the previous year.

Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 clearance deadline

Summary of Article 5 clearance deadline extension request(s)

Cambodia became a State Party to the Mine Ban Treaty on 1 January 2000.[46]

Following its first ten-year Article 5 deadline extension period (2010–2019), Cambodia submitted a second extension request in March 2019 for a further six years. The request was granted, giving Cambodia a new clearance deadline of 31 December 2025.[47]

In its 2019 request, Cambodia reported that meeting its deadline would require an additional 2,000 deminers, along with funding totaling US$165.3 million for 2020–2025.[48] In 2020, Cambodia said that it would deploy RCAF deminers to boost clearance.[49]

In 2021, Cambodia began a campaign to seek funding from the private sector through the Mine-Free Village Program.[50] By the end of 2022, approximately US$18 million had been donated.[51] In December 2022, the government established a Mine-Free Cambodia 2025 Fund which will receive US$30 million per year from the state budget, covering 2023–2025.[52]

On 10 May 2023, Cambodia submitted a revised workplan for the implementation of its Article 5 obligations, projecting the release of 345.3km² of mined areas in 2023, and 168km² in both 2024 and 2025. Cambodia plans to deploy an additional 1,500 RCAF deminers from 2023 onwards.[53] It was calculated that the sector requires US$175 million to complete land release of mined areas by 2025. Of this, around US$103 million was expected to be secured.[54] In 2022, the RCAF supported clearance work with around 395 deminers.[55]

Challenges toward meeting Cambodia’s extended Article 5 deadline include un-demarcated border areas preventing clearance along the border with Thailand, and a potential shortfall in funding. 

Land release: cluster munition remnants

2022 land release overview: cluster munition remnants[56]

Note: CMR=cluster munition remnants.

In 2022, Cambodia released 46.42km² of land contaminated with cluster munition remnants. More than 64% of this total was cleared, while 30% was reduced through technical survey, and 6% was cancelled via non-technical survey. A total of 5,194 cluster munition remnants were destroyed.

Five-year cluster munition remnant clearance[57]

 Note: CMR=cluster munition remnants; N/R=not reported.

In 2022, land release in Cambodia totaled 46.42km², representing the highest total since 2018, and almost double the 2021 total. Annual clearance in 2022 increased by 50% on the previous year.

Convention on Cluster Munitions Article 4 clearance deadline

Cambodia is not party to the Convention on Cluster Munitions.

Land release: other ordnance

In 2022, Cambodia reported having destroyed 17,002 ERW and 65 antivehicle landmines.

Clearance of border areas

Un-demarcated border areas and ongoing border disputes have been cited by Cambodia as barriers toward meeting its Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 deadline. It was reported in September 2019 that an agreement was signed between CMAC and the Thailand Mine Action Center (TMAC) on border clearance. CMAC agreed to clear 1.26km² in 14 locations, around 300–500 meters from the Thai border in Banteay Meanchey province.[58] Yet in 2022, the Cambodian government reported to the Monitor that clearance occurring within 7km of the border or within 1km of military installations needed to be agreed with the RCAF commander, and that clearance would be the responsibility of the army.[59] In December 2022, the CMAA and the RCAF began a field assessment of a 7km-long border area, to identify which minefields would be cleared by operators and which by the RCAF.

In December 2022, the CMAA and TMAC agreed to strengthen cooperation on demining along the border, instead of waiting for progress in joint survey and demarcation.[60] Areas for cooperation under the Thailand-Cambodia General Border Committee framework were proposed.[61]

Residual risk

The National Mine Action Strategy 2018–2025 aims to establish a sustainable national capacity to address residual mine/ERW threats after 2025. This includes building the capacity of the RCAF, CMAC, and the Cambodian National Police.[62] The government will take greater responsibility to address the mine/ERW issue after 2025, as the sector shifts from external to domestic funding.[63]

In 2022, the CMAA organized several internal meetings to discuss the transition toward managing residual contamination.[64] It planned to address the legal, institutional, and operational framework, and the capacity needed to address residual threats after 2025, with support from GICHD.[65]

Risk education

Highlights from 2022

In 2022, in consultation with operators, the CMAA finalized a list of highly-contaminated villages prioritized for risk education, in support of the revised workplan for 2023–2025.^[66] Following this, with support from the UNDP Clearing for Results project, CMAA organized three risk education campaigns in the provinces of Banteay Meanchey, Battambang, and Pursat.[67]

Ten national and international operators provided risk education in Cambodia in 2022, reaching a combined total of more than 1.57 million beneficiaries (538,519 men, 592,702 women, 149,896 boys, and 291,861 girls). Of these, 1,150 boys and 1,700 girls received risk education messages as part of the regular school curriculum.[68] Cambodia reached at least 2,161 persons with disabilities.

MAG initiated a research project in 2022 to improve the effectiveness of risk education messaging in Cambodia, through developing a better understanding ofthe causes of risk-taking behaviors.[69]

Management and coordination

The CMAA is responsible for the overall planning, monitoring, and coordination of risk education activities in Cambodia.[70] It regularly convenes a Technical Reference Group on Risk Education, which is attended by operators.[71] In 2022, the group held three meetings to discuss materials, the organization of the national mine awareness day, and community engagement.[72]

CMVIS, managed by the CMAA, provides data on mine/ERW casualties and incidents nationwide, and is used by operators to plan risk education activities.[73]

The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) ceased its funding for the CMAA and the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports in 2022. However, in 2022, the UNDP, the United Kingdom (UK) Department for International Development (DFID), and NPA provided support to the CMAA for risk education coordination activities.[74]

The CMAA works with ARMAC to strengthen risk education across ASEAN member states.

Risk education operators

During 2022, at the national level, risk education operators included the CMAA, NPMEC, CMAC, CSHD, the Cambodian National Police, the Cambodian Red Cross, and Spirit of Soccer, as well as the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports.[75]

International operators MAG and the HALO Trust reported risk education activities for 2022.[76]

Beneficiary data

Beneficiary data in 2022[77]

Note: N/R=not reported.

*Includes beneficiaries from risk education delivered through CMVIS data collectors.

Target groups

Mines/ERW have posed a threat in Cambodia for more than 30 years, and a major challenge is that people are often complacent about the risks and engage in unsafe behaviors on contaminated land. This is exacerbated by poverty and the lack of alternative viable livelihood opportunities.[78]

Economic development and in-migration to Cambodia’s northwest and northeast has increased the demand for land, and consequently increased the threat from mines/ERW in these formerly remote areas.[79] The mechanization of farming has also led to an increase in antivehicle mine incidents.[80]

Men and boys are the primary risk group due to their livelihood activities in contaminated areas.

In 2022, the CMAA prioritized villages for risk education based on casualty and contamination data, population demographics, data from the Poor Households Programme, and information from operators.[81] The main target groups included children, people entering forested areas to forage, users of agricultural machinery, and people tampering with ERW for use as scrap metal.[82]

MAG targeted agricultural workers, farmers, and children in 2022. It also targeted those who were carers for children, to promote safer behavior among families.[83] The HALO Trust predominantly targeted men, and reported that people were taking greater risks due to increased living costs.[84]

Delivery methods

Risk education is integrated with survey, clearance, and EOD operations in Cambodia. It is also delivered as a standalone activity, mostly through face-to-face sessions in communities. Facebook and Telegram are used for digital risk education. Emergency risk education is provided in areas where incidents have taken place.[85] Messages are tailored based on risk-taking behavior, the daily routines of at-risk groups, and the types of ordnance present in affected areas.[86]

The CMAA conducted face-to-face explosive ordnance risk education (EORE) in 18 provinces, partly through CMVIS data collectors.[87] It also held four training of trainers courses for operators in 2022, and undertook a monitoring mission to assess the capacity of community networks.[88]

Risk education is included within the school curriculum, at primary and secondary level, in seven provinces via the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports.[89] The Cambodian Red Cross conducted direct sessions through volunteer networks, focal points, teachers, and staff from operators.[90] The police informed the public about mine/ERW risks in 10 provinces as part of ongoing awareness-raising under the Village and Commune Safety Policy.[91]

The CMAC conducted risk education alongside land release and as a standalone activity across 25 provinces, and trained community focal points and police officers. It engaged with local authorities and monks to include EORE messages within the Buddhist Preaching Education Program.[92]

NPMEC delivered EORE alongside land release and as a standalone activity.[93] CSHD, the HALO Trust, and MAG also applied both approaches.[94] MAG used theatre performances, and conducted research on how messaging on social and behavioral change could be improved.[95] Spirit of Soccer provided risk education to children through sports activities and printed materials.[96]

Victim assistance

Highlights from 2022

In 2022, a total of 8,630 mine/ERW survivors in Cambodia received physical rehabilitation such as prosthetics, orthotics, and wheelchairs. Survivors also received surgery, emergency healthcare, physiotherapy, and psychological support including mirror therapy, as well as vocational training and interest-free loans.[97]

In 2022, the CMAA organized a meeting of self-help groups for mine/ERW survivors and persons with disabilities, to discuss advocating for the Law on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.[98]

The CMAA encouraged female mine/ERW survivors to access rehabilitation services.[99]

To improve data collection on casualties, the CMAA conducted training for commune and village chiefs in Svay Rieng province.[100]

The Trauma Care Foundation provided first-aid training to health center staff, village-level health support groups, and disabled persons’ organizations (DPOs), reaching almost 1,000 people.[101]      

Management and coordination

The CMAA is responsible for coordinating victim assistance, including survey and reporting.[102]

The Ministry of Social Affairs, Veterans and Youth Rehabilitation, supported by the Disability Action Council (DAC), oversees broader disability issues in Cambodia.[103]

The Persons with Disabilities Foundation (PWDF) manages rehabilitation centers, provides funds for educational projects and vocational training, manages job placements, and prepares policies to assist persons with disabilities. In 2022, discussions over handing control of rehabilitation centers to the Ministry of Health were ongoing.[104]

The Technical Reference Group on Victim Assistance is chaired by the CMAA, and includes the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Social Affairs, Veterans and Youth Rehabilitation, DAC, and the PWDF, along with the heads of 11 physical rehabilitation centers. Organizations representing mine/ERW survivors are also present.[105] The Technical Reference Group met twice in 2022.[106]

Victim assistance providers

Cambodia is developing an online directory of all victim assistance providers and services.[107]

At the governmental level, the CMAA, DAC, PWDF, and the Ministry of Social Affairs, Veterans and Youth Rehabilitation provided or supported victim assistance services in Cambodia in 2022.

National providers included the Angkor Association for Disabled (AAD), Arrupe Outreach Center Battambang, the Association for Aid and Relief-Wheelchairs for Development (AAR-WCD), the Cambodian Disabled Persons’ Organization (CDPO), Capacity-Building of Persons with Disabilities in Community Organizations (CABDICO), the Disability Development Services Program (DDSP), the National Center for Disabled Persons, Operation Children of Cambodia, and Veterans International Cambodia.

International operators that provided victim assistance included Exceed Worldwide, Humanity & Inclusion (HI), the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Japan-Cambodia Interactive Association (JCIA), and Jesuit Service Cambodia (JSC).

Needs assessment

The CMAA oversees Quality of Life survivor surveys and referrals through 25 volunteer networks across the provinces of Banteay Meanchey, Battambang, and Pailin. In 2022, the survey reached 1,295 mine/ERW survivors.[108] In addition, 278 survivors and persons with disabilities discussed their needs at a forum organized by the CMAA.[109]

Medical care and rehabilitation

More than 23,000 persons with disabilities, including mine/ERW survivors, received medical care in Cambodia in 2022, up significantly from around 15,500 in 2021.[110]

Due to the limited technical and financial capacity of the PWDF, the number of people accessing rehabilitation services annually in Cambodia has declined since 2011. Rehabilitation services and prosthetics production were significantly affected during the COVID-19 pandemic.[111]

A 2022 study found that mine/ERW survivors in rural areas often did not receive rehabilitation or prosthetics due to the distance they had to travel to a physical rehabilitation center. Mobile services were discontinued due to a lack of funding.[112]  A total of 23,468 persons with disabilities, including 8,630 mine/ERW survivors, received rehabilitation in 2022, up by 9,000 on the 2021 total.[113]

In 2022, community-based rehabilitation, referrals, and mobile repairs to prosthetic devices were available in 25 provinces.[114]

Services were provided by 11 rehabilitation centers, three prosthetics repair workshops, and spinal cord injury centers, which have started to be transferred to the Ministry of Health.[115] In 2022, the ICRC supported two government-run centers, in Battambang and Kampong Speu, that pro­vided over 45% of all rehabilitation services in Cambodia.[116] Other rehabilitation centers were supported by UNDP and Australia-Cambodia Cooperation for Equitable Sustainable Services (ACCESS).[117]

Socio-economic and psychosocial inclusion

Mine/ERW survivors in Cambodia benefitted from therapy and counselling in 2022.[118]

Over 150 persons with disabilities received vocational training, with around one-third of recipients mine/ERW survivors. Child survivors were supported to study at schools.[119]

A total of 443 mine/ERW survivors received an interest-free loan from the Cambodian Red Cross to establish small businesses.[120] Another 297 received support from the CMAA in 2022, including skills training and funding for education.

ARMAC trained healthcare workers in Cambodia to improve psychosocial support skills.[121]

Recent developments and key points 

In 2022, the University of Health Sciences, in Phnom Penh, developed an undergraduate program in physiother­apy with support from the ICRC, to increase national capacity.[122]

In 2022, the Ministry of Social Affairs, Veterans and Youth Rehabilitation, the Ministry of Public Works and Transport, and the Ministry of Land Management, Urban Planning and Construction collaborated to improve accessibility of the physical environment for mine/ERW survivors.[123]

Legal frameworks or policies on disability inclusion

In 2009, Cambodia enacted the Law on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.[124]

From April 2020, DAC led a process to draft a new law, aligned with the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). In 2022, DAC reported that the law was due to be submitted to the Cabinet, and was expected to be approved during 2023.[125]

Cambodia’s National Disability Strategic Plan, covering 2019–2023, contains objectives relevant to mine/ERW victim assistance. An assessment of the plan has been conducted and a new plan for 2024–2028 was due to be finalized in 2023.[126]

Sustainable Development Goal 18, developed by Cambodia with the aim of mitigating the negative impact of mines/ERW, includes an objective to promote the rights and improve the quality of life of persons with disabilities due to mine/ERW incidents.[127] Related objectives are included within the National Mine Action Strategy 2018–2025 and the Implementation Plan 2021–2023.[128]

Cross-cutting

Cambodia hosted the Third Global Conference on Mine/ERW Victim Assistance, in Phnom Penh in October 2023.[129]