Western Sahara

Cluster Munition Ban Policy

Last updated: 05 July 2016

Summary: Western Sahara cannot accede to the Convention on Cluster Munitions due to its political status, but has expressed its support for the ban on cluster munitions. In June 2014, Western Sahara provided a voluntary transparency report for the convention, which states that it does not possess cluster munitions and has never produced them.

Policy

The sovereignty of Western Sahara remains the subject of a dispute between the government of Morocco and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguía el Hamra and Río de Oro (Polisario). Polisario’s Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) is a member of the African Union, but is not universally recognized. It has no official representation in the UN, which prevents formal accession to the Convention on Cluster Munitions.

In June 2014, the SADR provided the UN with a voluntary Article 7 Report for the Convention on Cluster Munitions with a cover letter that declared “By submitting its voluntary report, the SADR would like to reaffirm its commitment to a total ban on cluster munitions as well as its willingness to accede to the Convention on Cluster Munitions and be bound by its provisions.”[1] Previously, in June 2012, a Polisario Front representative informed the Monitor of Polisario’s support for the prohibition on cluster munitions.[2]

Use, production, transfer, and stockpiling

In the voluntary Article 7 report, the SADR has declared that it possesses no stocks of cluster munitions and has never produced cluster munitions.[3] This followed a 2012 statement to the Monitor that the Polisario does not possess cluster munitions and has never used them.[4]

The Royal Moroccan Armed Forces used artillery-fired and air-dropped cluster munitions against Polisario in Western Sahara during their conflict from 1975 to 1991. SADR has reported that Royal Moroccan Armed Forces used BLU-63, M-42, and MK-118 cluster munitions at multiple locations in Dougaj, Mijek, Bir Lahlu, North Wadis, and Mehariz.[5]



[1] The report covers the period from 2005 to June 2014. The SADR provided the voluntary Article 7 report to the UN on 20 June 2014 with a cover letter signed by the Polisario’s representative to Switzerland and the UN in Geneva, dated 18 June 2014. A copy of the report was provided to the CMC and the Monitor, but the report had not been placed on the UN website as of 5 July 2016.

[2] Interview with Dr. Limam El Jalil, Representative of Polisario Front to the UN in Geneva, Geneva, 27 June 2012.

[3] SADR voluntary Convention on Cluster Munitions Article 7 Report, Forms B, C, D, and E, 20 June 2014.

[4] Interview with Dr. Limam El Jalil, Representative of Polisario Front to the UN in Geneva, Geneva, 27 June 2012.

[5] SADR voluntary Convention on Cluster Munitions Article 7 Report, Form F, 20 June 2014.


Mine Ban Policy

Last updated: 02 November 2011

Background

The sovereignty of Western Sahara remains the subject of a dispute between the government of Morocco and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguía el Hamra and Río de Oro (Polisario). Polisario’s Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic is a member of the African Union, but is not universally recognized. It has no official representation in the UN, which prevents formal accession to the Mine Ban Treaty. Polisario officials have, since 1999, stated that they would adhere to the Mine Ban Treaty if permitted to do so.

In November 2005, Polisario committed to unilaterally ban antipersonnel mines through the NGO Geneva Call’s Deed of Commitment. The Deed pledges Polisario to a ban on use, production, transfer, and stockpiling of antipersonnel mines, and to cooperation in mine action.

Use, production, transfer, and stockpiling

Both Polisario and the Royal Moroccan Armed Forces used mines extensively until the 1991 UN-monitored cease-fire. There have been no substantiated allegations of mine use since that time.[1]

Polisario is not known to have produced or exported antipersonnel mines. Polisario officials claim they acquired antipersonnel mines in the past by lifting them from Moroccan minefields, especially those around the berms (defensive earthen walls).[2] Based on mines previously destroyed, Polisario stocks have included antipersonnel mines of Belgian, Chinese, German, Israeli, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Soviet, United Kingdom, and Yugoslav manufacture.[3]

From 2006 to 2011, Polisario undertook four public destructions of stockpiled antipersonnel mines, pursuant to the Geneva Call Deed of Commitment.[4] The most recent stockpile destruction occurred on 28 February 2011, when Polisario destroyed 1,506 antipersonnel mines with technical assistance from Action on Armed Violence.[5] Polisario has not revealed the number of antipersonnel mines it still possesses. It has offered varying information on its stockpile in the past.[6]

 



[1] Morocco and Polisario have periodically traded accusations of new mine use, but both have denied it. See Landmine Monitor Report 2009, p. 1,216.

[2] They may have acquired mines from other sources as well. Some of the stockpiled mines Polisario has destroyed are not known to have been in Morocco’s arsenal, such as those of Belgian, Portuguese, and Yugoslav origin.

[3] “Observations made during field mission by Landmine Action UK,” provided by email from Landmine Action, 3 May 2006. See also, Landmine Monitor Report 2007, p. 1,095; and Landmine Monitor Report 2006, p. 1,196.

[4] From 2006–2011, Polisario destroyed a combined total of 10,141: 3,316 in February 2006; 3,321 in February 2007; 2,000 in May 2008; and 1,504 in February 2011. See Ilaria Ercolano, “UN-backed talks on future of Western Sahara to resume next week,” UN News Centre, 3 March 2011, www.un.org; Landmine Monitor Report 2008, p. 1,118; Landmine Monitor Report 2007, p. 1,095; and Landmine Monitor Report 2006, p. 1,196. The UN News Center report from March 2011 mistakenly noted that 1,506 antipersonnel mines had been destroyed. In an email to the Monitor, Geneva Call stated that 1,506 total mines were destroyed, including 2 TMA 4 antipersonnel mines used as donor charges, bringing the total number of antipersonnel mines destroyed in February 2011 to 1,504. Email from Katherine Kramer, Programme Director and Acting Coordinator for Landmines and Other Explosive Devices, Geneva Call, 22 August 2011. The mines included are: 111 M-35 (Belgium); six Type 58 (China); 6,728 VS-50 (Italy); 276 SB-33 (Italy); 76 M966 (Portugal); 20 M969 (Portugal); 49 MAI75 (Romania); 42 MI AP DV 59 (France); 303 MK1 [or Number 7] (UK); 109 PMD-6 (USSR); 1,490 PMD-6M (USSR); 12 PMN (USSR); 60 POMZ-2M (USSR); 29 PRB M404 (Belgium); 535 PROM-1 (Yugoslavia); 267 VS-33 (unknown type, presumably Italian); 22 “NEGRO” (unknown type, attributed to Israel); and six E-58 (unknown type, attributed to Germany). The Monitor had previously reported that the 2006 and 2007 destruction events also included 284 antivehicle mines. Geneva Call, which requested clarification from Polisario, was told that the destroyed mines were MK1 antipersonnel mines, not K1 antivehicle mines. Polisario also said that mines recorded as FMP1 were actually Portuguese-made M969 mines.

[5] Ilaria Ercolano, “UN-backed talks on future of Western Sahara to resume next week,” UN News Centre, 3 March 2011, www.un.org.

[6] In 2002, Polisario told the Monitor that it no longer had a stockpile of antipersonnel mines, except for 1,606 disarmed mines on display in a military museum. In January 2006, however, Polisario’s Chief Engineer, Mohammed Fadel Sidna, told the Monitor that its stockpile consisted of more than 10,000 antipersonnel and antivehicle mines.


Mine Action

Last updated: 25 November 2016

Contaminated by: landmines (massive contamination), cluster munition remnants (medium contamination), and other unexploded ordnance (UXO). 

Western Sahara cannot accede to the Mine Ban Treaty or the Convention on Cluster Munitions due to its political status

The extent of mine contamination in the Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR, or Western Sahara) is not known, but at the end of 2016 there was a total of 256km2 of suspected and confirmed antipersonnel and antivehicle mine contamination, of which 3.22km2 was confirmed to be contaminated by antivehicle mines. Previously all mined areas were categorized as confirmed, but in 2015 they were reclassified as suspected hazardous areas (SHAs) in order for survey to be carried out to better define the extent of contamination. In 2015, 0.5km2 of mine and explosive remnants of war (ERW) contamination land was released (excluding cluster munition remnants) and 3.9km2 of suspected contamination was canceled by non-technical survey (NTS). No areas containing antipersonnel mines were released.

Cluster munition contamination continued to be found in 2015, with 15 additional hazardous areas confirmed through survey activities, totaling 0.54km2. As of end 2015, Western Sahara had 4.89km2 of hazardous areas confirmed to be contaminated by cluster munition remnants. In 2015, 1.84km2 of cluster munition-contaminated land was cleared, with the destruction of 143 submunitions.

Recommendations for action 

  • Western Sahara should formally commit to respect and implement the Mine Ban Treaty and Convention on Cluster Munitions, including to clear all mines and cluster munition remnants east of the Berm as soon as possible.
  • Morocco should ensure immediate access and unhindered movement of all civilian staff of the UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO), including UN Mine Action Service (UNMAS) international staff, in order to allow demining by MINURSO and UNMAS to return to full functionality.
  • Morocco is strongly encouraged to provide cluster strike data to the UN or humanitarian demining organizations to facilitate survey and clearance of cluster munition remnants.

Contamination

Western Sahara remains significantly affected by mines and ERW, including cluster munition remnants, due to the conflict between the Royal Moroccan Armed Forces (RMAF) and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el Hamra and Rio de Oro (Polisario Front) forces. A 2,700km-long defensive wall (the Berm) was built during the conflict, dividing control of the territory between Morocco on the west and the Polisario Front on the east.[1]

These explosive hazards continue to pose a daily threat to the local, nomadic, and refugee populations, along with UN personnel and military observers, and humanitarian actors.[2] Socio-economic growth and development are negatively impacted, limiting access to fluctuating and seasonally dependent water sources vital for animal herding and small-scale agriculture on which local populations depend.[3] 

In 2015, the UN reported that many minefields are located in areas with increasing civilian activity, including where civilians were returning home from refugee camps and building infrastructure northeast of the Berm in several areas that were largely abandoned since 1976.[4]

Mine contamination

The exact extent of mine contamination across Western Sahara is not known, although the areas along the Berm are thought to contain some of the densest mine contamination in the world.[5] The contamination is a result of fighting in previous decades between the RMAF and the Polisario Front forces. 

As at the end of 2015, Western Sahara had a total of 42 confirmed and suspected mined areas totaling over 256km2 to the east of the Berm, as set out in the table below.[6] This is almost 4km2 less than at the end of 2014 according to UNMAS’s estimate of contamination.[7] Of the 42 areas, seven, covering a total of 61.9km2, are located within the 5km-wide buffer strip and are inaccessible for clearance.[8]

Mine contamination east of the Berm as at end 2015[9]

Type of contamination

CHAs

Area (km2)

SHAs

Area (km2)

AP mines

0

0

1

0.099

AV mines

9

3.22

19

73.13

AP/AV mines

0

0

13

183.27

Total

9

3.22

33

256.499

Note: AP = antipersonnel; AV = antivehicle; CHAs = confirmed hazardous areas

Both the north and south of Western Sahara contained antipersonnel mines, as set out in the table below.[10]

Antipersonnel mine contamination by province east of the Berm (EoB) as at end 2015[11]

Province

CHAs

Area (km2)

SHAs

Area (km2)

North Region EoB

0

0

1

0.10

South Region EoB

0

0

13

183.27

Total

0

0

14

183.37

 

UNMAS reported that in 2015, previously confirmed mined areas were reclassified as SHAs in the Information Management System for Mine Action (IMSMA) database in order for survey to be carried out with the aim of better defining and narrowing the size of the confirmed hazardous areas (CHAs). It also reviewed and audited the IMSMA database where SHAs had been tasked for survey in order to identify CHAs and to release areas with no contamination.[12] 

A survey in 2006–2008 by an international NGO, then Landmine Action, later Action on Armed Violence (AOAV), initially identified 37 mined areas on the east of the Berm, nearly half of which were in Bir Lahlou, followed by Tifariti, Mehaires, and Awanit.[13] According to UNMAS, five minefields were addressed in 2012–2016, but new mined areas continued to be identified. No new antipersonnel mine contamination was identified in 2015.[14]

Neither survey nor clearance has been conducted in the 5km buffer zone to the east of the Berm.[15] The extent of contamination west of the Berm remains unknown, and as of April 2016, no survey had been carried out there.[16] The RMAF controls territory to the west of the Berm where it has been conducting large-scale demining. According to UNMAS, the RMAF cooperates with the UN Mine Action Coordination Center (MACC) and submits regular monthly reports, helping to build a clearer understanding of the mine and ERW threat across Western Sahara.[17]

In 2015, 15 casualties were reported east of the Berm, eight injured, six killed, and one unknown. Thirty-two casualties were reported west of the Berm; 25 injured and seven killed. (See the Casualties and Victim Assistance profiled for further information.)

Cluster munition contamination

Western Sahara had almost 4.9km2 of area confirmed to contain cluster munition remnants east of the Berm as of the end of 2015. Of this, six cluster strike areas with a total size of 0.5km2 are located inside the buffer strip and are inaccessible for clearance.[18] Both the north and south of Western Sahara contain confirmed cluster munition-contaminated areas, as set out in the table below.[19]

Cluster munition contamination by region east of the Berm as of the end of 2015[20]

Region

Confirmed hazardous areas

Area (km2)

North

30

1.31

South

25

3.58

Total

55

4.89

 

This is an increase in confirmed cluster munition contamination from the 51 areas totaling 4.67km2 recorded at the end of 2014.[21] 

The RMAF used both artillery-fired and air-dropped cluster munitions against Polisario forces during the conflict in Western Sahara from 1975 to 1991. According to SADR, BLU-63, M42, and MK118 submunitions were used by the RMAF at multiple locations in Bir Lahlou, Dougaj, Mehaires, Mijek, and North Wadis.[22] 

While clearance had been projected to be completed by the end of 2012,[23] discovery of previously unknown contaminated areas meant this target date was not met. New contaminated areas have continued to be identified, with an additional 15 cluster strike areas with a total size of 0.54km2 discovered in 2015. New strike areas are expected to be found in the future as mine action activities continue and additional information is received from local populations.[24]

Of the 4.89km2 of cluster munition contamination remaining at the end of 2015, six cluster munition strike areas with a total size of 520,609m2 are located inside the buffer strip and are inaccessible for clearance. This amount of reported contamination may also increase if access restrictions to the buffer strip are removed and survey and clearance can be conducted.[25]

Program Management

MINURSO manages a Mine Action Coordination Center (MACC). MINURSO MACC supports the mine action activities implemented by commercial contractor Dynasafe MineTech Limited (DML) and NGO Norwegian People’s Aid (NPA) in 2015.[26] 

In September 2013, the Polisario Front established a local mine action coordination center (the Saharawi Mine Action Coordination Office, SMACO), which is responsible for coordinating mine action in Western Sahara east of the Berm and for land release activities.[27] SMACO also conducted external quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC) activities.[28] SMACO, which was established with UN support, started its activities in January 2014. 

Strategic planning 

MINURSO MACC’s activities are conducted in accordance with the UN Mine Action Strategy for 2013–2018. UNMAS planned to develop a mine action strategy specific to Western Sahara in the second half of 2015.[29] As of April 2016, the strategy was still under development and awaiting finalization and approval by mine action stakeholders.[30] 

UNMAS reported that the MACC identifies priorities for mine clearance to the east of the Berm in conjunction with SMACO. These priorities are then confirmed with MINURSO and an annual operational workplan is developed and implemented. Priorities for mine clearance are areas that restrict MINURSO from carrying out its mandate and have a high impact on local communities.[31]

Standards 

In 2016, UNMAS intended to develop local mine action standards applicable east of the Berm in coordination with mine action partners. Once completed, the standards will be jointly managed by SMACO and MINURSO MACC.[32]

Operators 

In 2015, MINURSO MACC deployed three multi-task teams (MTTs) and one community liaison/risk education/survey team, employing a total of 37 operational staff. Of its four teams, two MTTs were tasked for mine clearance, and one was tasked to address cluster strike areas.[33]

DML, formerly called Mine Tech International (MTI), changed its name on 3 August 2015 to Dynasafe MineTech Limited.[34] It took over the UN Office for Project Services (UNOPS) tender for mine action in Western Sahara in September 2014 from AOAV, which closed operations due to lack of funding.[35] DML was the only implementing operator tasked with conducting cluster munition survey and clearance during 2015.

In 2015, NPA deployed to Western Sahara for a two-year period with two MTTs totaling 17 demining personnel tasked to conduct mine clearance.[36]

Information management 

UNMAS stated that a complete audit of the IMSMA database was initiated in 2015, which was expected to be completed in mid-2016. According to UNMAS, the audit was designed to ensure the data in IMSMA is accurate and comprehensive, and includes information on mined areas, cluster strike areas, and UXO spot sites.[37] In May 2016, UNMAS reported that the audit had validated the accuracy of the cluster munition-related information recorded in IMSMA.[38]

Land Release (Mines)

No areas containing antipersonnel mines were released in 2015. All tasked areas were contaminated with antivehicle mines and no antipersonnel mines were located during clearance.[39] 

According to UNMAS, nearly 4.4km2 of mine and ERW contamination (excluding cluster munition remnants, see section below) was released in 2015, of which 502,901m2 was cleared and 3,881,967m2 was canceled by NTS.[40] This compares to clearance of 1.2km2 of mined area in 2014.[41] No land was reported canceled or reduced by non-technical or technical survey during that year, though 52km2 of SHA was handed over to local communities after the completion of a combination of non-technical and technical survey carried out over two years in 2012–2014, and almost 4.2km2 was confirmed as mined in 2014.[42]

NPA began operations in August 2015 and its teams deployed on one task for a three-month period, where the main threat was from antivehicle mine contamination. It reported additionally canceling 247,000m2 by NTS and reducing a further 103,000m2 through technical survey.[43] According to UNMAS, DML confirmed 289,889m2 as mined.[44]

To the west of the Berm, according to a UN Secretary-General report, the RMAF reported that it had cleared more than 220.3km2 in territory under its control between April 2015 and April 2016, with the destruction of 9,873 items, including antivehicle and antipersonnel mines, UXO, and small arms ammunition. This is a slight decrease from the nearly 223km2 it reported clearing between April 2014 and March 2015.[45] This figure has not been included by the Monitor in the total amount of land cleared.

Land Release (Cluster Munition Remnants)

Total cluster munition-contaminated area released by clearance in 2015 was just over 1.84km2, an increase on the 1.75km2 of area cleared in 2014.[46]

Survey in 2015 (cluster munition remnants) 

In 2015, DML identified 15 new cluster munition strike areas with a total size of 537,431m2 through its survey activities.[47] In 2014, AOAV, Mechem, MTI, and MINURSO confirmed a total of nearly 0.9km2 as contaminated with cluster munition remnants through non-technical and technical survey.

Clearance in 2015 (cluster munition remnants) 

In 2015, UNMAS reported that DML cleared 11 cluster munition-contaminated areas with a total size of 1,841,225m2 to the east of the Berm, destroying 143 submunitions and another 120 items of UXO.[48] This compares to clearance of seven areas totaling 1,756,566m2 in 2014 by AOAV and MTI, with the destruction of 321 submunitions and 297 items of UXO.[49]

Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 and Convention on Cluster Munitions Article 5 Compliance 

Western Sahara cannot become a State Party to the Mine Ban Treaty. However, in June 2014, the SADR submitted a voluntary Mine Ban Treaty Article 7 transparency report to the UN “as a sign of the support of the Sahrawi State for the goals of the Treaty.”[50]

Western Sahara also cannot accede to the Convention on Cluster Munitions. However, in June 2014, the SADR submitted a voluntary Convention on Cluster Munitions Article 7 transparency report to the UN, stating that “By submitting its voluntary report, the SADR would like to reaffirm its commitment to a total ban on cluster munitions as well as its willingness to accede to the Convention on Cluster Munitions and be bound by its provisions.”[51]

MINURSO MACC reported that priorities in 2016 would include the tasking of six minefields and six cluster strike areas for clearance east of the Berm, in support of MINURSO’s ceasefire monitoring efforts and logistical supply teams, and by extension, local populations. It did not expect funding levels to change in 2016.[52]

In April 2016, UNMAS reported that all confirmed and suspected hazardous areas were currently tasked for NTS to more accurately identify the remaining mine and ERW threat. According to UNMAS, no survey operations for cluster strike areas were planned for 2016, but discovery of new cluster munition contamination during the course of mine and ERW survey and clearance operations remains a possibility.[53]

In keeping with previous estimates, UNMAS stated that with current mine action capacity, it would take about 9 years to clear all current confirmed and suspected hazardous areas, including minefields and cluster munition strike areas, provided that the number of CHAs does not increase significantly in 2016.[54] According to UNMAS, key challenges include: insufficient information regarding the location of hazardous areas, particularly to the west of the Berm; inclement weather conditions, such as heavy winds, sandstorms, and temperatures exceeding 50°C; and the impact of Western Sahara’s political status on resource mobilization.[55]

Following a visit by UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon to Sahrawi refugee camps in southern Algeria in March 2016 and his use of the term “occupation” to describe the political status of Western Sahara, Morocco ordered the expulsion of 84 civilian staff members of MINURSO, including the international staff of UNMAS. This resulted in the suspension of UNMAS-contracted demining activities in Western Sahara as of 20 March 2016.[56] The decision sparked international condemnation and has threatened to seriously paralyze MINURSO’s mission in Western Sahara, raising concerns over stability in the region and setting a dangerous precedent for UN peacekeeping operations.[57] 

On 29 April 2016, the UN Security Council voted to extend MINURSO’s mandate in Western Sahara for one year until 30 April 2017. In doing so, it emphasized strongly “the urgent need for the mission to return to full functionality,” noting that MINURSO has been unable to fully carry out its mandate as the majority of its civilian component have been prevented from performing their duties. The resolution requests that the UN Secretary-General report back to the Security Council within 120 days on whether MINURSO has returned to full functionality.[58]

In April 2016, SMACO reported that as a result of these events, anticipated funding had been put on hold until the issue between MINURSO and Morocco is resolved. It stated that consequently, and without the MACC, it was “nearly unable to conduct its duties as it is totally reliant on UNMAS support which has been affected by the current crises.”[59] NPA stated that SMACO was carrying out quality assurance/quality control activities but was having difficulty performing its functions and struggling with significant financial and logistical problems.[60]

In June 2016, following a visit by a UN team, a UN official reported back to Security Council members on the situation of MINURSO’s mission in Western Sahara and stated that “the mission was unable to fulfil its mandate and that it was carrying out limited observation and demining activities at substantial risk to the personnel involved because of a shortage of security and maintenance staff in the mission.”[61]

As of mid-August 2016, UNMAS reported that its staff had not yet been able to return to Western Sahara, but expected to do so within the following two to three weeks. NPA and DML’s Emergency Response Team were, however, operational.[62]

Five-year summary of cluster munition clearance

Year

Area cleared (m2)

2015

1,841,225

2014

1,756,566

2013

985,000

2012

819,122

2011

1,045,500

Total

6,447,413

  

 

The Monitor gratefully acknowledges the contributions of the Mine Action Review supported and published by Norwegian People’s Aid (NPA), which conducted mine action research in 2016 and shared it with the Monitor. The Monitor is responsible for the findings presented online and in its print publications.



[1] The Berm is 12-times the length of the Berlin Wall and second in length only to the Great Wall of China. 

[2] Emails from Sarah Holland, Programme Officer, UNMAS, 26 April 2016; and 18 May 2015.

[3] Ibid.; and UNMAS, “2016 Portfolio of Mine Action Projects: MINURSO,” undated.

[4] “Report of the UN Secretary-General on the situation concerning Western Sahara,” S/2015/246, 10 April 2015, p. 7.

[5] See, UNMAS, “About UNMAS in Western Sahara,” updated May 2015; and Action On Armed Violence (AOAV), “Making life safer for the people of Western Sahara,” London, August 2011.

[6] Email from Sarah Holland, UNMAS, 26 April 2016. The extent of contamination in Moroccan-controlled territory to the west of the Berm remains unknown.

[7] Response to questionnaire by Sarah Holland, UNMAS, 18 May 2015. The extent of contamination in Moroccan-controlled territory to the west of the Berm remains unknown.

[8] The buffer strip is an area 5km wide east of the Berm. MINURSO, “Ceasefire Monitoring Overview,” undated.

[9] Email from Sarah Holland, UNMAS, 26 April 2016.

[10] Ibid.

[11] Ibid.

[12] Email from Graeme Abernethy, Programme Manager, UNMAS, 24 August 2016.

[13] Email from Penelope Caswell, Field Programme and Geographic Information System Manager, AOAV, 18 May 2010.

[14] UNMAS, “About UNMAS in Western Sahara,” updated May 2016; and email from Sarah Holland, UNMAS, 26 April 2016.

[15] Response to questionnaire by Sarah Holland, UNMAS, 24 February 2014.

[16] UNMAS, “2016 Portfolio of Mine Action Projects: MINURSO (UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara),” undated; and email from Sarah Holland, UNMAS, 26 April 2016.

[17] UNMAS, “2016 Portfolio of Mine Action Projects: MINURSO,” undated.

[18] The buffer strip is an area 5km wide east of the Berm. MINURSO, “Ceasefire Monitoring Overview,” undated.

[19] Email from Sarah Holland, UNMAS, 21 April 2016.

[20] Ibid. Bir Lahlou (also spelled Bir Lehlou), Tifariti, and Mehaires (also spelled Meharrize) are considered to make up the north, and Mijek and Agwanit the south. Email from Graeme Abernethy, UNMAS, 9 June 2015.

[21] In May 2016, UNMAS reported that the actual number of cluster munition-contaminated areas as of end 2014 was 51 instead of the 49 it had reported in May 2015. It stated that the increase in contamination from 2014 to 2015 was due to new areas identified by survey during the year and the fact that “during cluster munition clearance for a particular task, fade out is applied to the individual clearance requirement and in almost all cases, this far exceeds the initial size of the cluster munition remnants recorded in IMSMA.” According to UNMAS, fade out distances may vary from site to site, but in normal circumstances would be “not more than 50m from the last submunitions located in a particular area of a task.” Emails from Graeme Abernethy, UNMAS, 27 May 2016; and from Sarah Holland, UNMAS, 23 May 2016, and 18 May 2015.

[22] SADR Voluntary Convention on Cluster Munitions Article 7 Report, Form F, 20 June 2014; and Cluster Munition Monitor, “Cluster Munition Ban Policy: Western Sahara,” updated 12 August 2014.

[23] Email from Karl Greenwood, Chief of Operations, AOAV/Mechem Western Sahara Programme, AOAV, 18 June 2012.

[24] Emails from Sarah Holland, UNMAS, 23 May 2016; and from Gordan Novak, AOAV Western Sahara, 25 July 2014.

[25] Emails from Sarah Holland, UNMAS, 23 May 2016; and from Graeme Abernethy, UNMAS, 27 May 2016. The six areas were identified in a 2008 survey.

[26] Email from Sarah Holland, UNMAS, 26 April 2016.

[27] Response to questionnaire by Sarah Holland, UNMAS, 24 February 2014; and email, 25 February 2014.

[28] Email from El Hadji Mamadou Kebe, Programme Manager, NPA, 4 May 2016.

[29] Email from Sarah Holland, UNMAS, 5 June 2015.

[30] Ibid., 26 April 2016.

[31] Ibid.

[32] Ibid.

[33] Ibid.; and 21 April 2016.

[34] Dynasafe website, “History of MineTech,” undated.

[35] Emails from Melissa Fuerth, Head of Programmes, AOAV, 7 May 2015; and from Melissa Andersson, Country Director, NPA, 11 April 2015.

[36] Email from El Hadji Mamadou Kebe, NPA, 4 May 2016.

[37] Email from Sarah Holland, UNMAS, 26 April 2016.

[38] Email from Graeme Abernethy, UNMAS, 27 May 2016.

[39] Ibid., 24 August 2016.

[40] Ibid.

[41] Response to questionnaire by Sarah Holland, UNMAS, 18 May 2015.

[42] Email from Sarah Holland, UNMAS, 26 April 2016; and response to questionnaire, 18 May 2015.

[43] Email from El Hadji Mamadou Kebe, NPA, 4 May 2016.

[44] Email from Sarah Holland, UNMAS, 26 April 2016; and response to questionnaire, 18 May 2015.

[45] “Report of the UN Secretary-General on the situation concerning Western Sahara,” S/2016/355, 19 April 2016, p. 10.

[46] Emails from Sarah Holland, UNMAS, 21 April 2016; and 18 May 2015.

[47] Ibid., 21 April 2016.

[48] Ibid.

[49] Ibid., 18 May 2015.

[50]SADR initiative welcomed by Maputo Conference on Mine Ban,” Sahara Press Service, 2 July 2014.

[51] SADR voluntary Convention on Cluster Munitions Article 7 Report, Form F, 20 June 2014; and ICBL-CMC, “Country Profile: Western Sahara: Cluster Munition Ban Policy,” 12 August 2014.

[52] Email from Sarah Holland, UNMAS, 26 April 2016.

[53] Ibid.; and 21 April 2016.

[54] Ibid.

[55] UNMAS, “About UNMAS in Western Sahara,” updated May 2016.

[56] R. Gladstone, “Morocco Orders U.N. to Cut Staff in Disputed Western Sahara Territory,” The New York Times, 17 March 2016; and What’s in Blue: Insights on the work of the UN Security Council, “Western Sahara: Arria-formula Meeting, Consultations, and MINURSO Adoption,” 26 April 2016.

[57] What’s in Blue: Insights on the work of the UN Security Council, “Western Sahara: Arria-formula Meeting, Consultations, and MINURSO Adoption,” 26 April 2016; and “In recorded vote, Security Council approves one year extension of UN mission in Western Sahara,” UN News Service, 26 April 2016.

[58] UN Security Council Resolution 2285 (2016), 29 April 2016.

[59] Email from Samu Ami, Coordinator, SMACO, 27 April 2016.

[60] Email from El Hadji Mamadou Kebe, NPA, 27 May 2016.

[62] Email from Graeme Abernethy, UNMAS, 24 August 2016.


Support for Mine Action

Last updated: 06 October 2016

In 2015, international assistance to mine action activities in the territory of Western Sahara amounted to $1.2 million, with Norway and Germany as the sole donors.[1]

Additionally, Switzerland provided in-kind assistance valued at CHF450,000 ($476,387) in support of clearance operations in Western Sahara.[2]

International contributions: 2015[3]

Donor

Sector

Amount (national currency)

Amount ($)

Germany

Victim assistance

€650,000

721,240

Norway

Clearance

NOK4,000,000

495,780

Total

 

 

1,217,020

 

Since 2011, international contributions towards mine action in Western Sahara have fluctuated between $1.5 million in 2011 and $0.4 million in 2012, and totaled nearly $5 million.

Summary of international contributions: 2011–2015[4]

Year

International contributions ($)

2015

1,217,020

2014

681,494

2013

1,200,179

2012

399,795

2011

1,469,390

Total

4,967,878

 



[1] Germany, Mine Ban Treaty Article 7 Report, Form J, 4 April 2016; and email Ingrid Schoyen, Senior Adviser, Section for Humanitarian Affairs, Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 24 May 2016.

[2] Switzerland, Convention on Cluster Munitions Article 7 Report, Form I, 28 April 2016. Average exchange rate for 2015: US$1=CHF0.9628. US Federal Reserve, “List of Exchange Rates (Annual),” 4 January 2016.

[3] Average exchange rate for 2015: €1=US$1.1096; NOK8.0681=US$1. US Federal Reserve, “List of Exchange Rates (Annual),” 4 January 2016.

[4] See previous Monitor profiles. 


Casualties and Victim Assistance

Last updated: 17 December 2014

Victim assistance commitments

Western Sahara has a significant number of landmine survivors, cluster munition victims, and survivors of other explosive remnants of war (ERW) who are in need. The Polisario authorities signed Geneva Call’s “Deed of Commitment” in 2005 which obliges them to support humanitarian mine action activities, such as victim assistance among other commitments.[1] In 2014, the Polisario authorities submitted a voluntary Article 7 report to the Convention on Cluster Munitions to “reaffirm its commitment to a total ban on cluster munitions as well as its willingness to accede to the [Convention] and to be bound by its provisions.”[2]

Casualties Overview

All known casualties by end 2013

At least 2,500

Casualties in 2013

23 (2012: 40)

2013 casualties by outcome

1 killed; 22 injured (2012: 5 killed; 35 injured)

2013 casualties by item type

1 antipersonnel mine; 2 antivehicle mines; 1 cluster submunition; 4 ERW; 15 unknown explosive items

In 2013, the Monitor identified 23 mine/ERW casualties in Western Sahara.[3] Most (13) casualties were civilians; there were three casualties among security forces.[4] There was at least one child casualty; however, it is possible this number was much higher because the age and sex of the majority of the casualties recorded (19 of 23) were unknown. There were no confirmed female casualties.

The majority of casualties (19 or 83%) were in Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara (west of the berm[5]) with the remainder occurring in Polisario-controlled Western Sahara, east of the berm. This was similar in percentage to 2012 when 35 of the 40 casualties identified occurred in Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara.

The 23 casualties identified in 2013 represented a significant decrease from the 40 casualties reported in 2012, although an increase compared with the 11 casualties report in 2011.[6] Casualty data is not comprehensive, making it difficult to determine clear casualty trends over time. [7]

The total number of mine/ERW casualties in Western Sahara is not known, although it was estimated in 2011 that there had been some 2,500 since 1975.[8] Morocco reported a total of 2,536 mine/ERW casualties, 831 persons killed and 1,705 injured, from 1975 to the end of 2012; it was not known how many of these occurred in Morocco versus Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara.[9] As of August 2014, the Saharawi Association of Landmine Victims (ASAVIM) had collected detailed information on 1,006 victims of mines, cluster munitions, and other ERW who are living in and around the Rabouni refugee camps on the Algerian border with Western Sahara.[10] The Polisario authorities reported a total of 1,413 people killed and injured by mines/ERW through April 2014.[11]

Cluster munition casualties

A 14-year-old boy was injured by an unexploded submunition in September 2013.[12] As of July 2013, ASAVIM had identified 177 casualties of cluster munition remnants occurring between 1975 and 2012.[13]

Victim Assistance

As of August 2014, ASAVIM had collected data on 1,006 landmine and cluster munition victims (including some family members of persons killed) as well as 473 other war victims and persons with disabilities in Polisario-controlled Western Sahara.[14] From 1975 to the end of 2012, Morocco has reported a total of 1,705 mine/ERW survivors.[15] It is likely that most of these occurred in Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara.[16]

Victim assistance since 1999

Victim assistance in Polisario-controlled Western Sahara, extremely limited since monitoring began in 1999, is worsened by the fact that most survivors live in extreme poverty in refugee camps. A lack of public transportation in the region made it very difficult for survivors to access the limited services available. With the start of the Action on Armed Violence (AOAV) mine/ERW clearance program in 2006, AOAV began providing emergency aid and transportation in Polisario-controlled Western Sahara to complement a similar service provided by the UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) in Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara. However, given the vast and remote territory, emergency response and transportation remained inadequate.

The Chehid Cherif National Center for Mine and War Victims consistently provided basic medical care for war victims, including landmine survivors. The center also offered vocational training programs (when funding allowed), although demand for services consistently exceeded supply. All medical services in refugee camps were free but facilities lacked adequately trained staff and resources. Rehabilitation and prosthetics improved in 2008 and continued to be provided through 2013 with the start of an ICRC-supported program in the Rabouni rehabilitation center, serving Saharawi refugees from Polasario-controlled Western Sahara; before this, obtaining access to physical rehabilitation was virtually impossible as no services were available for those living in nearby refugee camps. International technical and financial assistance for physical rehabilitation decreased in 2011 as the ICRC Special Fund for the Disabled ceased providing support to the rehabilitation center in Laâyoune, in Morocco-controlled Western Sahara.

There was an acute lack of economic opportunities for survivors; psychological support in the camps was insufficient to address the needs of the population. ASAVIM was founded in 2005 to collect information about survivors and their needs, refer survivors to available services, and advocate on their behalf. There was no government coordination of victim assistance by Morocco during the period, but there was regular coordination between the Chehid Cherif Center and ASAVIM in the refugee camps and in Polasario-controlled Western Sahara.

Victim assistance in 2013

In August 2013, the Polisario authorities established the Sahrawi Mine Action Coordination Office (SMACO) to coordinate activities “related to landmines, demining and landmines victims.”[17] At the end of 2013, ASAVIM was awarded a grant by the ICBL-CMC’s Survivor Network Project (SNP) to provide peer support and referrals to survivors and other persons with disabilities and  to strengthen the network.

Assessing victim assistance needs

During 2013 and into 2014, ASAVIM continued to work in cooperation with the Polisario government to identify mine/ERW victims and other victims of armed conflict and to assess their needs. Collected data was added to the database established in 2012 by ASAVIM, with support from AOAV.[18] The Ministry of Defence shared their database on veterans with disabilities for inclusion in the survey.[19]

In order to improve victim assistance planning, coordination, and the provision of services, the results of the survey were shared with representatives of the Polisario government (including the ministries of social affairs, health, education, and cooperation), and also with survivors, the ICRC, and other international organizations such as the Spanish Red Cross, UNHCR, and MINURSO.[20] Data from the survey were included in the voluntary Article 7 report submitted by Polisario authorities to the Convention on Cluster Munitions.[21]

Victim assistance coordination

SMACO, established by presidential decree in July 2013, is the national authority responsible for the coordination of all activities related to landmines and cluster munitions (including victim assistance) and has been designated as the national victim assistance focal point. The Polisario authorities also named ASAVIM as “an institution that is in charge of all questions related to mine victims such [as] compiling data about them and assessing their needs as well as finding ways for financing, educating and supporting them in all aspects of life.”[22]

In 2013 and into 2014, SMACO, ASAVIM, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Public Recruitment and Vocational Training, representatives of the legislature, and representatives of international organizations met to promote the rights of mine and ERW victims and to consider the drafting of a national law to protect these rights. A draft law was under consideration as of February 2014.[23]

Survivor participation and inclusion

Survivors, through ASAVIM, coordinated regularly with the Chehid Cherif Center and relevant Polisario government institutions in order to refer survivors to available services.[24] ASAVIM’s Secretary General, Aziz Buchar Haidar, himself a landmine survivor, headed the delegation of the Sahrawi Republic to a workshop on victim assistance held jointly by the African Union and the ICRC in March 2014.[25]

ASAVIM was involved in the ongoing implementation of data collection and needs assessment. ASAVIM and its survivor members also implemented an economic inclusion program, provided peer support, and carried out advocacy activities.[26]

Service accessibility and effectiveness

Victim assistance activities[27]

Name of organization

Type of organization

Type of activity

Changes in quality/coverage of service in 2013

Chehid Cherif Landmine and War Victims Center

Public center (supported by Polisario authorities)

Medical attention, nutritional support and vocational training center; host for ICRC rehabilitation center; facilitated transportation to access services

Ongoing

Rabouni Hospital

Public hospital

Provided psychological assistance to mine/ERW survivors in nearby refugee camps

Ongoing

ASAVIM

Survivor Association in Polisario-controlled Western Sahara

Advocacy for victim assistance and for the inclusion of victims in existing development and training initiatives; needs assessment; economic inclusion; peer support and referrals

Continued the only ongoing needs assessment/data collection; strengthened peer support

Moroccan Association of Mine Victims (l’Association marocaine des victimes des mines)

Survivor Association in Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara

Awareness of victims’ rights and risk education

Ongoing

AOAV

International NGO

Emergency response to mine/ERW incidents in Polisario-controlled Western Sahara; support to ASAVIM for survivor needs assessment, and support to the Chehid Cherif Center

Ongoing

ICRC

International organization

Support for physical rehabilitation at Rabouni Rehabilitation Center; outreach to refugee camps to identify beneficiaries and raise awareness of available services; referral system in hospitals; support for education for children of mine victims

Transferred main physical rehabilitation center from Noukheila to the Rabouni hospital, closer to refugee camps

UNHCR

International organization

Basic services for all refugees; emergency medical services and evacuation; support for vocational training for persons with disabilities

Ongoing

Emergency and ongoing medical care

MINURSO staff provided emergency response following mine incidents in Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara, while AOAV provided the same service in Polisario-controlled Western Sahara.[28] UNHCR’s medical unit also provided emergency medical services and casualty evacuation.[29]

However, in 2013 as in previous years, it was reported that emergency response times for people involved in mine/ERW incidents in remote areas could be several hours or even days, resulting in some casualties dying from their wounds before receiving medical attention.[30] Morocco reported having modern medical facilities where survivors could access services for free.[31]

Ongoing healthcare remained very limited and treatment for complex injuries or chronic conditions is scarce and in some cases non-existent. The ASAVIM/AOAV needs assessment found that 71% of survivors were in need of some form of medical attention and at least a quarter could not access the assistance they needed where they lived.[32]

Physical rehabilitation, including prosthetics

In 2013, the ICRC-run Rabouni Rehabilitation Center within the Chehid Cherif Center was transferred to the Rabouni hospital to be closer to refugee populations which it was serving in Polisario-controlled Western Sahara. The ICRC maintained its referral network with area hospitals and its outreach visits to refugee camps.[33]

There were also reported to be rehabilitation centers in two hospitals as well as in medical centers in each of the five refugee camps near Rabouni.[34] Among the survivors who were surveyed in 2012, 57% indicated the need for prosthetics or other mobility aids.[35]

Economic inclusion

In 2013, ASAVIM provided support to survivor cooperatives to support income-generating projects through a grant program launched in August 2012. ASAVIM had established a national project commission to monitor the implementation of the project. The commission included representatives from among several victim assistance stakeholders, including the ministries of social affairs and women’s promotion; cooperation; education; and defence. Cooperatives received training in project and business planning. At least 27 cooperatives had received support for their business proposals in 2013.[36]

A limited number of vocational training and income-generating programs were available to refugees in the area of the Rabouni refugee camps through the Polisario government and international organizations, such as UNHCR, including some targeting persons with disabilities.[37] However, in general survivors based in refugee camps were not aware of such programs.[38]

Just 15% of survivors surveyed by ASAVIM received financial assistance (which was very limited) in the form of a small pension for persons with severe disabilities referred to as “the encouragement,” provided by the Polisario authorities.[39] Survivors in Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara were entitled to financial assistance from the Moroccan government; however, it was estimated in 2010 that about one in six survivors lacked the documentation needed to access this assistance, which was deemed insufficient to meet basic needs.[40] Morocco reported having government programs for the economic and social inclusion of these survivors.[41]

Psychological support

In 2013 and into 2014, ASAVIM increased the availability of psychological assistance by providing peer support, along with information on where to access services, while continuing to collect information on the needs of survivors. ASAVIM continued to provide such support on an ongoing basis through its office and during meetings of members.[42] Some psychological assistance was also available through the Rabouni hospital.[43] Many survivors did not know about psychological assistance services and have reported a complete absence of professional psychological support.[44]

Laws and policies

The Polisario constitution guarantees the rights of all Sahrawi citizens with special mention for the rights of “those wounded in war.”[45] In 2013, as a result of advocacy efforts by national associations including ASAVIM, discussions began among relevant government bodies to develop a draft law entitled the “National Law to Protect the Rights of Victims of Mines and Cluster Bombs.” As of February 2014, a complete draft was prepared and pending approval by the Polisario legislature.[46]

It was reported that medical care, rehabilitation, and economic inclusion programs that were relevant to mine/ERW survivors were implemented in accordance with the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.[47]

 



[1] Since 1979, the Polisario authorities have been recognized by the UN as the representative of the people of Western Sahara. Geneva Call, “Western Sahara,” undated.

[2] Sahrawi Arabic Democratic Republic (SADR), Convention on Cluster Munitions voluntary Article 7 Report (reporting period 2005 to June 2014), submitted 16 June 2014, Form H; and email from Awala Lehib, Director, ASAVIM, 10 August 2014.

[3] Email from Jonas Tappolet, Information Management System for Mine Action (IMSMA) Officer, UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) Mine Action Coordination Centre (MACC), 4 June 2014.

[4] The civil status of seven casualties was unknown.

[5] Berms are earthen walls about three meters high that Morocco built in 1982–1987 to secure the northwestern corner of Western Sahara.

[6] 2012 casualty data provided by email from Karl Heinz Stierli, IMSMA Officer, MINURSO MACC, 24 June 2013; and Monitor media review 1 January 2012–31 December 2012.

[7] MINURSO, the principal source of information on casualties in Western Sahara, only began collecting casualty data in 2008 and for 2011 it did not include all of the casualties identified by Action on Armed Violence (AOAV).

[8] AOAV, “Making life safer for the people of Western Sahara,” London, August 2011, p. 7; and Louise Orton, “Killed in Western Sahara by a bomb shaped like a ball,” BBC News (Western Sahara), 17 May 2011.

[9] Morocco did not make statements during Mine Ban Treaty meetings in 2013 or 2014 nor did it submit an Article 7 report for calendar year 2013. Statement of Morocco, Mine Ban Treaty Standing Committee on Victim Assistance and Socio-Economic Reintegration, Geneva, 24 May 2012; and Morocco reported 36 landmine casualties for 2012 (four people killed and 32 injured), all occurred in the areas of Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara. Mine Ban Treaty Article 7 Report (for calendar year 2012), Form I, April 2013.

[10] Email from Awala Lehib, ASAVIM, 10 August 2014.

[11] Polisario authorities cited the ASAVIM database as the source for their casualty data though ASAVIM was unable to confirm the total reported by the Polisario authorities. SADR, Convention on Cluster Munitions voluntary Article 7 Report (reporting period 2005 to June 2014), submitted 16 June 2014, Form H; and email from Awala Lehib, ASAVIM, 10 August 2014.

[12] Email from Jonas Tappolet, MINURSO MACC, 4 June 2014.

[13] A more updated figure was not available as of December 2014. Email from Gaici Nah Bachir, Advisor, ASAVIM, 24 July 2013.

[14] Email from Awala Lehib, ASAVIM, 10 August 2014.

[15] Morocco did not make statements during Mine Ban Treaty meetings in 2013 or 2014 nor did it submit an Article 7 report for calendar year 2013. Statement of Morocco, Mine Ban Treaty Standing Committee on Victim Assistance and Socio-Economic Reintegration, Geneva, 24 May 2012; and Mine Ban Treaty Article 7 Report (for calendar year 2012), Form I, April 2013.

[16] It is possible that some, though few, may have occurred in Morocco. Morocco does not collect data on casualties occurring in Polisario-controlled Western Sahara.

[17] SADR, Convention on Cluster Munitions voluntary Article 7 Report (reporting period 2005 to June 2014), submitted 16 June 2014.

[18] By August 2014, the total number of people surveyed was 1,479. AOAV, “Understanding and Addressing Needs of Victims and Survivors of ERW in Western Sahara,” London, September 2012, p. 11; and email from Awala Lehib, ASAVIM, 10 August 2014.

[19] Email from Gaici Nah Bachir, ASAVIM, 24 July 2013.

[20] Email from Aziz Haidar, ASAVIM, 20 June 2012.

[21] SADR, Convention on Cluster Munitions voluntary Article 7 Report (reporting period 2005 to June 2014), submitted 16 June 2014.

[22] Ibid., Form H.

[23] Ibid.

[24] Ibid.; and email from Awala Lehib, ASAVIM, 10 August 2014.

[25] ICBL-CMC’s SNP, “Survivor Leaders at Key ICRC African Union Meeting,” 5 March 2014.

[26] Email from Awala Lehib, ASAVIM, 10 August 2014.

[27] ICRC Physical Rehabilitation Programme (PRP), “Annual Report 2013,” Geneva, 2013; email from Awala Lehib, ASAVIM, 10 August 2014; SADR, Convention on Cluster Munitions voluntary Article 7 Report (reporting period 2005 to June 2014), submitted 16 June 2014, Form H; and “Dakhla: Les mines antipersonnel font de nouvelles victims” (“Dakhla: Landmines are the cause of new victims”), Aujourd hui, 28 June 2013.

[28] SADR, Convention on Cluster Munitions voluntary Article 7 Report (reporting period 2005 to June 2014), submitted 16 June 2014, Form H; and Ginevra Cucinotta, “Mine Action Activities in Western Sahara,” Journal of Mine Action, Issue 14.3, Fall 2010.

[29]Report of the Secretary-General on the situation concerning Western Sahara” (New York: UN Security Council, 8 April 2013), S/2013/220, p. 9.

[30] Email from Gaici Nah Bachir, ASAVIM, 24 July 2013; and SADR, Convention on Cluster Munitions voluntary Article 7 Report (reporting period 2005 to June 2014), submitted 16 June 2014, Form H.

[31] Statement of Morocco, Mine Ban Treaty Standing Committee on Victim Assistance and Socio-Economic Reintegration, Geneva, 24 May 2012.

[33] ICRC PRP, “Annual Report 2013,” Geneva, 2013.

[34] SADR Convention on Cluster Munitions voluntary Article 7 Report (reporting period 2005 to June 2014), submitted 16 June 2014, Form H.

[36] Email from Gaici Nah Bachir, ASAVIM, 4 October 2013.

[37] Interview with Aziz Haidar, ASVIM, 23 February 2012; and “Report of the Secretary-General on the situation concerning Western Sahara” (New York: UN Security Council, 8 April 2013), S/2013/220, p. 13.

[38] Response to Monitor questionnaire from Gaici Nah Bachir, ASAVIM, 5 May 2012.

[40] John Thorne, “Western Sahara conflict’s explosive legacy,” The National (Smara), 8 May 2010.

[41] Statement of Morocco, Mine Ban Treaty Standing Committee on Victim Assistance and Socio-Economic Reintegration, Geneva, 24 May 2012.

[42] Email from Awala Lehib, ASAVIM, 10 August 2014.

[43] SADR, Convention on Cluster Munitions voluntary Article 7 Report (reporting period 2005 to June 2014), submitted 16 June 2014, Form H.

[44] Response to Monitor questionnaire from Gaici Nah Bachir, ASAVIM, 5 May 2012.

[45] Article 41, Sahrawi Constitution, as quoted in SADR, Convention on Cluster Munitions voluntary Article 7 Report (reporting period 2005 to June 2014), submitted 16 June 2014, Form H.

[46] SADR, Convention on Cluster Munitions voluntary Article 7 Report (reporting period 2005 to June 2014), submitted 16 June 2014, Form H.

[47] Ibid.