Notes: ERW = explosive remnants of war.

Contamination

The only mined areas under the jurisdiction or control of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK) are on the Falkland Islands/Malvinas in the South Atlantic, the result of armed conflict with Argentina in 1982.[1] As of March 2018, only 35 mined areas remained to be cleared, totaling 6.4km² (see table below).[2]

Contamination by province (as at end of Phase 5(a), end March 2018)[3]

Some clearance was undertaken in the early 1980s immediately following the conflict, during which 1,855 mines were removed and destroyed from mined area.[4] However, between the date the UK became a State Party to the Mine Ban Treaty (1 March 1999) and the submission of its first Article 5 deadline extension request in 2008, no clearance took place.[5]

The UK has reported that no civilian has ever been killed or injured by mines on the islands.[6] Over the years, however, civilians have deliberately or inadvertently entered a minefield in a number of cases. For example, the Ministry of Defence reported “infringement” of minefields by a total of six locals and 15 foreign fishermen or tourists between March 2000 and December 2008.[7] It is a criminal offence on the Falklands/Malvinas to enter a minefield.[8]

The socio-economic impact of contamination on the islands is said to be minimal. All mined areas and suspected hazardous areas (SHAs) have been “perimeter-marked and are regularly monitored and protected by quality stock proof fencing, to ensure the effective exclusion of civilians.”[9] According to the UK, mined areas represent “only 0.1% of land used for farming. The mined areas cover a wide range of terrain including sandy beaches and dunes, mountains, rock screes, dry peat, wet swampy peat, and pasture land.”[10] A number of instances of cattle, sheep, or horses entering the minefields have been recorded since 2000, some of which resulted in the animals’ deaths.[11]

Cluster Munition Contamination

In 2015, the UK affirmed that no known areas of cluster munition contamination exist outside SHAs on the islands, in particular, mined areas, all of which are fenced and marked.[12]

Cluster munition remnants may remain on the islands[13] as a result of use of BL755 cluster bombs by British forces against Argentine positions during the 1982 armed conflict. In February 2009, the Ministry of Defence stated that: “According to historical records either 106 or 107 Cluster Bomb Units (CBU) were dropped by British Harriers and Sea Harriers during the conflict. Each CBU contains 147 BL755 submunitions and using the higher CBU figure (107), a total of 15,729 submunitions were dropped. Using a 6.4% failure rate assessed during in-service surveillance over 15 years, we would estimate that 1,006 would not explode. Given that 1,378 BL755s were cleared in the first year after the conflict and that a further 120 have been found and disposed of since (totaling 1,498), clearly, there was a slightly higher failure rate. Even if the rate had been closer to 10% and 1,573 had failed, we can only estimate that some 70 remain
but that due to the very soft nature of the peat found on the islands, many of these will have been buried well below the surface. We believe that the majority of those remaining are now contained within existing minefields and these will be cleared in due course.”[14]

In 1982–1984, battle area clearance (BAC) was undertaken over large areas looking for cluster munition remnants and other unexploded ordnance (UXO). Based on bombing data, areas where unexploded submunitions were expected to be found were targeted “very quickly,” and a large number were located and destroyed. Demining operations involved both surface and subsurface clearance.[15]

The UK has stated that potential cluster munition contamination has, in part, been taken into account during mine clearance operations on the Falkland Islands/Malvinas, with two areas, Fox Bay 8W and Goose Green 11, selected for clearance partly based on records indicating that cluster munitions had been dropped there. No cluster munition remnants were found in these two areas.[16]

In 2010, the UK reported destruction of two submunitions in Stanley Area 3, during clearance operations across four mined areas in 2009–2010.[17] In June 2015, the UK reported destruction of 19 submunitions during clearance operations in January to April 2015, also in Stanley Area 3.[18] UK records suggest that four cluster bombs were dropped in this area.[19] No further cluster munition remnants were encountered either during clearance operations in September 2015 to March 2016 in Stanley Area 2 and Stanley Area 3,[20] or during survey and clearance operations in November 2016 to March 2018.[21] In June 2017, however, the main body of a BL755 cluster munition container was found in “minefield GG08,” during BAC in the Goose Green region. No submunitions were found though and GG08 has now been declared cleared of all explosive ordnance.[22]

Program Management

A National Mine Action Authority (NMAA) was established in 2009 to regulate, manage and coordinate mine action on the islands.The NMAA is chaired by the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) and comprises representatives from the Ministry of Defence, the islands’ government, and a strategic advisor. It meets “as required” (at least once every six months), with the land release contractor (currently Dynasafe BACTEC Ltd, formerly BACTEC) and the Demining Project Office (currently Fenix Insight), invited to attend “where appropriate.”[23]

In addition, there is a Suspect Hazardous Area Land Release Committee (SHALARC), which is a body based on the islands, composed of a wide range of local officials and a representative of the UK military. The SHALARC provides a forum for the contractors to discuss or provide detail on issues of concern or interest to the committee, such as the land release process, including when land has been released for public use.[24]

Strategic planning

The UK is currently undertaking the fifth phase of its demining operations on the Falklands/Malvinas. The government has committed to spend more than £27 million on Phase 5(a) and (b) (covering 2016–2020), which covers the clearance of 79 mined areas totaling some 10.86km². This total includes 2.86km² of BAC.[25]

Phase 5(a) commenced in November 2016 and concluded in March 2018.[26] During this phase operators cleared more mined areas for which there were no minefield records than previously. The prior technical survey included cutting lanes into suspected minefields in order to establish the position of any remaining mines.[27] Following the conclusion of Phase 5(a), the UK believes it has a more accurate picture of the remaining mine clearance challenge, which has helped inform its strategic planning and the drafting of its second Article 5 deadline extension request, which was submitted on 29 March 2018 for consideration by States Parties to the Mine Ban Treaty.[28]

The current stage of demining, Phase 5(b), which began in April 2018, is due to conclude by the end of March 2020.[29] At the end of this Phase, it is expected that only eight mined areas will remain, covering an estimated 163,460m², and located in the environmentally sensitive beach and sand dune area known as Yorke Bay.[30] Technical survey of Yorke Bay, which will be carried out during Phase 5(b), will inform the planning and costing for the release of the remaining eight mined areas.[31]

There is no reference to suspected cluster munition-contaminated areas in either the UK’s Convention on Cluster Munitions Article 7 transparency report for 2017, or in its draft 2018 Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 deadline extension request. It is unclear whether analysis of UK bombing data could provide evidence as to whether or not the eight mined areas in Yorke Bay forecast to still remain as at March 2020 could also contain cluster munition remnants.

To date, the UK has prioritized clearance of areasclosest to settlements and civilian infrastructure, resulting in release of areas closest to Port Stanley and
the roads leading in and out of the islands’ capital. In early 2016, the Ministry of Defence and the FCO commissioned the UK’s Defence, Science and Technology Laboratory to carry out a study to help prioritize clearance of the remaining minefields in a Phase 5 of demining. The 2016 study applied Multi Criteria Decision Analysis to rank all remaining minefields according to a range of factors including size/density of minefield; terrestrial factors (remoteness of location, topography, and difficulty of mine removal); human factors (proximity to life, benefits to local population of clearance, and political prioritiesof the UK/islands governments); and environmental factors (conservation of wildlife and adherence to local legislation). The resultant priority list formed the basis of the UK government’s invitation to tender for the contract for Phase 5 demining.[32] The UK has noted that the “small” humanitarian and socio-economic impact of the remaining mined areas on the islands decreases as the mined areas closest to population centers are cleared.[33]

Legislation and standards

Survey and clearance operations on the islands are reported to meet or exceed the International Mine Action Standards (IMAS), by adapting IMAS to meet the specifics of the situation on the islands.[34] Each project’s Statement of Requirement contains the standards specific to the tasks being addressed.[35] Applicable environmental standards are agreed on in coordination with the islands’ government Environmental Planning Department to minimize damage to the fragile environment and to aid remediation.[36]

Quality management

The Land Release Contractor on the islands(Dynasafe BACTEC Ltd, at present)undertakes its own internal quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC). The Demining Project Office (Fenix Insight, at present)monitors this quality management and can also conduct its external QA and QC.[37] The size of the sampled areas at each task is decided by the quality contractor based on the guidance set out in IMAS 09.20.[38]

Operators

The Land Release Contractor on the islands is selected by international competitive tender prior to each phase, as required by the European Union. Based on a balance of merit and value for money, the same organization, BACTEC, was awarded the land release contract for the current fifth phase of demining operations on the islands, as for the previous four phases.[39] Capacity for Phase 5 operations was increased from previous phases, with a total of 108 personnel: 84 demining staff (seven teams of 12—eight deminers, one supervisor, one team leader, a medic, and a driver per team); seven technical staff (surveyors, mechanics, and excavator operators); 13 support staff; and four management staff. Mechanical equipment includes one antivehicle mine machine, three antipersonnel mine machines, and two armored excavators, in addition to the required transportation equipment.[40]

The position of Demining Project Office, which implements the policies of the NMAA and monitors the land release operations on the islands, is also awarded through competitive tender. Based on merit, Fenix Insight has been awarded responsibility for the Demining Project Office for all five stages of demining so far.[41]

The UK has noted that the islands have limited capacity in terms of accommodation and medical/casevac (evacuation of casualties by air) facilities. Current staffing levels have reached the maximum that can be safely deployed on the islands, but work was claimed to be progressing “very well” with the current capacity.[42]

Land Release

During 2017, antipersonnel mine survey and clearance operations took place on the islands as part of Phase 5(a) of demining (November 2016 to March 2018, with operations stood down for the Austral winter).

Between January and December 2017, just over 1km² was released by clearance, as part of Phase 5(a) clearance operations.[43]

While non-technical and technical survey have formed a key part of the UK’s operations on the islands for many years, the UK has not historically collated data on area cancelled and on area reduced.[44]

Survey in 2017

During Phase 5a (November 2016 to March 2018), technical survey was reported to have been completed in minefields in Port Howard, Fox Bay, and Stanley Area 3, but no data was reported on the amount of mined area reduced through survey.[45]

Clearance in Phase 5(a) (November 2016 to March 2018)

Phase 5(a) survey and clearance operations are tackling some of the most complex, remote, and environmentally sensitive minefields. Phase 5(a) commenced in November 2016 and ran until March 2018, with a three-month stand down over the Austral winter beginning in June 2017.[46] In total, during Phase 5(a) of clearance, 52 mined areas were released, totaling just over 2km², with the destruction of 4,223 antipersonnel mines, 245 antivehicle mines, and 44 items of UXO (see table below).[47] A further 2.86km² of BAC was conducted during this Phase.[48]

Of this, just over 1km² of mined area was reported as cleared in 2017, with the destruction of 2,557 antipersonnel mines, 207 antivehicle mines, and 17 items of UXO during the course of the year.

Mine clearance Phase 5(a) (November 2016 to March 2018)[49]

Note: AP = antipersonnel; AV = antivehicle.

Phase 5(b) of clearance operations, for the period April 2018 to March 2020, commenced on schedule in April, and is covering more than 5.95km² of confirmed or suspected mined area.[50]

In some SHAs, machines (with a flail or tiller) are used to prepare the land for clearance, which improves productivity. All mechanically prepared ground is subsequently processed by deminers using visual search, detector search, raking, or full manual excavation drills. Furthermore, aerial drones, which were first introduced during Phase 4 clearance operations, are again being deployed during Phase 5. Use of drones to overfly SHAs helps to identify mine “dump” locations, row markers, and other evidence that might have otherwise taken a manual team several days to locate. The UK deems the use of drones to be an excellent addition to the demining toolbox. As it progresses towards clearing sand-duned areas, heavy sand-sifting machinery will be introduced.[51]

No cluster munition remnants were encountered during Phase 5(a), but theUK did report that the main body of a BL755 container was found in June 2017 in “minefield GG08,” during BAC in the Goose Green region of the islands.

GG08 has now been declared clear.[52]

Previous clearance Phases 1–4 (October 2009 to March 2016)

The first formal clearance operations since the UK became a State Party to the Mine Ban Treaty in 1999 took place at the end of 2009. In total, during the first four phases of clearance from October 2009 to March 2016, 35 mined areas were released, totaling just over 2km², with the destruction of 4,083 antipersonnel mines, 927 antivehicle mines, and 74 items of UXO, including 21 submunitions (see table below).

Mine clearance by project phase and area in October 2009 to 30 March 2016[53]

Note: AP = antipersonnel; AV = antivehicle.

Battle area clearance

Battle area clearance (BAC) operations conducted during Phases 2, 3, 4(b), and 5(a), resulted in nearly 7.86km² of SHA being cleared, with the destruction of 87 items of UXO.[54]

Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 Compliance

Under Article 5 of the Mine Ban Treaty (and in accordance with the 10-year extension granted by States Parties in 2008), the UK is required to destroy all antipersonnel mines in areas under its jurisdiction or control as soon as possible, but not later than 1 March 2019. In July 2017, the UK reported that meeting the 2019 deadline would be “challenging,” and that its current priority was successful implementation of the first stages of the Phase 5, and agreeing on plans for demining beyond 2018.[55] In March 2018, the UK submitted a second extension request, seeking a further five-year extension to its Article 5 deadline, through to 1 March 2024. This will be the final deadline extension the UK expects to seek.

Phase 5(a) of survey and clearance operations finished as scheduled at the end of March 2018. Upon conclusion of Phase 5(a), just over 4.08km² of minedland had been cleared since the UKjoined the Mine Ban Treaty, releasing a total of 87 mined areas. In addition, almost 7.86km² of BAC has been released during this same period.[56] Phase 5(b) commenced immediately in succession in April 2018 and was expected to conclude by 31 March 2020.

As outlined by the UK in its Article 5 extension request, submitted for consideration by States Parties in March 2018, the UKexpects that eight remaining mined areas, covering an estimated 163,460m², will remain upon completion of Phase 5(b) in March 2020. The mined areas in question are all located in Yorke Bay, an environmentally sensitive beach and sand dune area, which is also the most challenging of mined areas.[57] Technical survey will inform the planning and costing for the release of these remaining mined areas in Yorke Bay.[58] According to the UK, “It is possible that the work can be completed in a single further year, but that cannot be certain at this stage…Rather than request a three year extension which may prove insufficient, thus necessitating a further extension request, the UK requests a five year extension until 1 March 2024.”[59]

There are two further areas, Don Carlos Bay and Beatrice Cove, which have never been considered as mined, and which were not involved in the 122 mined areas established in the feasibility study in 2007, but which are located behind the long Murrell Peninsula fence. This area has been out of bounds to all persons on the islands since 1982, so it has not been possible to check whether these two areas were mined. If these two areas are found to require clearance, they will be added to the list of mined areas, and the UK expects they could be cleared within the five-year extension period.[60]

The UK “retains the strong intention that the clearance of Yorke Bay will be possible within the 5-year extension request.”[61] It does, however, cite two risk factors to the realization of the plan. The first is a risk that at Yorke Bay, some mines may have been moved by sand movement and that technical survey cannot identify the bounds of that movement, which may lead to lengthier and more expensive clearance. Second, there could be a delay in securing further funding, which “will be weighed against competing priorities and subject to approval at senior levels. ”This in turn could lead to a situation requiring demobilization, and remobilization of demining capacity, or retendering, after Phase 5, which would be timely and costly: hence the request to an extended deadline to 2024.[62]

The UK conducted an environmental impact assessment (EIA) in 2017, which was discussed with the islands’ government. The EIA identified two particular issues: a) the penguins on the islands; and b) the area at Yorke Bay, which will be addressed in such a way as to ensure impact to the existing environment is limited to the minimum practically possible.[63]

Most of the remaining mined areas are said to be in extremely remote locations, exposed to adverse weather conditions that enforce an annual three-month stand in the winter months.[64] The UK has also reported the following additional challenges to clearance in the islands: incomplete Argentine minefield records; concerns about the environmental impact of demining; and limits
on the capacity of the islands to provide certain facilities for demining, such as accommodation for deminers and medical facilities, including for the evacuation of any casualties.[65] The UK reports that these factors are becoming increasingly significant as it tackles the more technically challenging and environmentally sensitive minefields in Phase 5 of demining. To address these considerations the UKhas increased its funding commitment for Phase 5.[66]

The UK government funds all mine-clearance operations in the islands.[67] The first four stages of demining (2009 to March 2016) cost £11 million (approximately US$14.5 million).[68] The UK government has committed to spend more than £27 million (approximately US$35.5 million at current exchange rates) on Phase 5 through to March 2020. This will leave eight mined areas as of end of March 2020. According to the UK, “further funding will be sought once the cost of covering Yorke Bay is known based upon the results of technical survey conducted during the extension request period in Phase 5.”[69]

Demining on the islands is conducted in phases, which cut across calendar years, though, based on the year in which demining tasks were completed, a total of 3.42km² of mined area has been cleared in the last five years.

Five-year summary of mine clearance[70]

*Based on the year in which clearance was completed.

The UK has committed to providing updated information on progress and next steps at subsequent future Meetings of States Parties.[71]

Article 4 Compliance

Under Article 4 of the Convention on Cluster Munitions, the UK is required to destroy all cluster munitions in areas under its jurisdiction or control as soon as possible, but not later than 1 November 2020. It is unclear whether it is on track to meet this deadline.

Any cluster munition-contaminated area that might exist is within existing mined areas or SHAs on the isalnds, which the UK is addressing under its Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 obligations. If the UK proceeds according to the workplan laid out in its 2018 draft Article 5 deadline extension request, only eight mined areas in Yorke Bay, totaling an estimated 163,460m², will remain at the end of March 2020. March 2020 falls ahead of the UK’s Convention on Cluster Munitions Article 4 deadline of November 2020. However, it has not specified which, if any, of the remaining mined areas may contain cluster munition remnants based on bombing data. As such, it is difficult to ascertain whether or not the UK is on track to meet its November 2020 Article 4 deadline.

The Monitor acknowledges the contributions of the Mine Action Review (www.mineactionreview.org), which has conducted the primary mine action research in 2018 and shared all its country-level landmine reports (from“Clearing the Mines 2018”) and country-level cluster munition reports (from “Clearing Cluster Munition Remnants 2018”) with the Monitor. The Monitor is responsible for the findings presented online and in its print publications.