COUNTRY SUMMARY

Landmines and explosive remnants of war (ERW) contaminate several regions of south-central Somalia including Galmudug, Hirshabelle, Jubaland, and South-West states; as well as Puntland and Somaliland. (See separate Impact profile for Somaliland).

The majority of the landmine contamination is concentrated along Somalia’s western border with Ethiopia and results from historical conflicts. Improvised mine use by non-state armed groups (NSAGs) was also reported in urban and rural areas.[1]

Somalia’s initial Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 clearance deadline was in October 2022. In 2021, an extension was granted until 1 October 2027, based on a revised extension request that aimed to clarify the remaining contamination.[2] Somalia submitted a revised workplan in April 2023.[3] 

The full extent of cluster munition contamination in Somalia is unknown, though it is thought to be small. Suspected contaminated areas include the borders with Kenya and Ethiopia in the Gedo and Middle Juba regions, in Jubaland state. There is also possible contamination in the Bakool and Bay regions, in South-West state.[4] Conducting survey in these regions has been challenging due to lack of funding and inaccessibility amidst armed conflict.[5]

Risk education in Somalia has been conducted by international demining operators, local non-governmental organizations (NGOs), the Somali Explosives Management Authority (SEMA), and community groups in all states affected by mines/ERW. [6]

Victim assistance services remain minimal and are inadequate to meet the needs of mine/ERW survivors. After a period of inaction, in April 2022, the National Action Plan for Victim and Disability Assistance was launched after being endorsed by Somalia’s Federal Government.[7]

ASSESSING THE IMPACT

Contamination

     Extent of contamination[8]

Note: CHA=confirmed hazardous area; SHA=suspected hazardous area; N/R=not reported.

*Mixed contamination reported by Somalia included antivehicle mines, low-density antipersonnel mines, and ERW.

**This total includes 559,537m² (0.56km²) of land containing only antipersonnel mines (558,102m² CHA and 1,435m² SHA). The 0.56km² figure is also reported separately in the first column under antipersonnel mines.

***Undifferentiated between CHA and SHA. This does not include antipersonnel mine contamination.

Landmine contamination

As of the end of 2022, Somalia reported a total of 559,537m² (558,102m² CHA and 1,435m² SHA) of land contaminated only by antipersonnel landmines, within a reported total area of  124.23km² (55.47km² CHA and 68.76km² SHA) of mixed contamination, which includes antipersonnel mines. Areas contaminated only by antipersonnel landmines were reported in the states of Galmudug (Abduwaq) and Hirshabelle (Beletweyne), and in two separate areas in Puntland (Galkacyo). Areas with mixed contamination were reported in Banadir, Galmudug (Galgadug and Mudgug), Hirshabelle (Hiran), Jubaland (Gedo), and South-West (Bakol).[9]

Somalia reported that its antipersonnel landmine contamination was low-density, resulting in potentially inflated estimates, and that further survey was needed to record the contamination more accurately and disaggregate it by device type. Estimates included only accessible areas. Due to insecurity and the presence of NSAGs in the Middle Jubba region of Jubaland state, areas likely contaminated by antipersonnel mines remained unsurveyed as of February 2023.[10]

Most mined areas are along the border with Ethiopia, and are believed to consist primarily of antivehicle mines. The presence of mines along the border hampered the ability of rural and nomadic communities to use the land safely, and restricted their mobility. The severity of this threat has been exacerbated by drought, which has led to increased displacement and pushed families and their livestock into areas with known explosive ordnance contamination.[11]

The complexity of contamination in south-central Somalia has been attributed to the potential re-contamination of previously cleared areas due to armed conflict, and inadequately managed or abandoned stockpiles. While there are no officially-held stockpiles of antipersonnel mines, Somalia has reported the existence of privately-owned stockpiles, including by NSAGs.[12]

Improvised mines, in the form of pressure-plate improvised explosive devices (IEDs), were reported to pose a growing threat to civilians in 2022, hindering their freedom of movement and transportation along major supply routes and in urban centers.[13] In 2021, Somalia reported that most IEDs were not primarily designed as victim-activated IEDs, and that 91% of such devices were composed of explosives harvested from ERW or cluster munition remnants.[14]

Cluster munition remnant contamination

The extent of cluster munition remnant contamination in Somalia is unknown but believed to be limited. It mainly dates from the Ogaden War in 1977–1978. (See Ethiopia Impact Profile). Contamination is suspected along the borders with Kenya and Ethiopia in Jubaland state, and also in Bakool and Bay in South-West state. BL755 submunitions have been found in Middle Juba and Gedo (Jubaland state), as well as in Puntland on the border with Ethiopia.[15] 

In 2022, Somalia made progress on non-technical survey, estimating 600m² of contamination (400m² in Bakool; 100m² in Gedo; and 100m² in Galgaduud, Galmudug State).[16] The United Nations Mine Action Service (UNMAS) reported the use of cluster munition remnants as IED components.[17] Survey has been limited by lack of funding and ongoing armed conflict.[18]

Other types of contamination

Somalia’s ERW contamination results from historical and ongoing armed conflict.[19] As of the end of 2022, of the mixed contamination reported, a total of 45.53km² included only ERW.[20]

Casualties

From 1999–2022, the Monitor recorded 3,495 casualties (1,376 killed; 1,766 injured; and 353 with an unknown survival outcome) in Somalia. SEMA reported 1,529 mine/ERW casualties for all time as of February 2023, including 550 casualties over the previous ten-year period.[21]

     Five-year casualties total: 2018–2022[22]

     Casualties in 2022[23]

Casualty demographics in 2022*

Note: N/R=not reported.

*Of the 61 casualties recorded by the Monitor in 2022, for 23 casualties the age and gender was unknown.

     Casualties by civilian status in 2022

Casualties by device type in 2022

Note: APM=antipersonnel mines; AVM=antivehicle mines; CMR=cluster munition remnants; ERW=explosive remnants of war.

The Monitor recorded 61 mine/ERW casualties in Somalia during 2022, up from 55 in 2021 and 36 in 2020.

On 9 June 2023, an ERW incident (reported to involve a mortar round) in the Lower Shabelle region resulted in the death of 27 civilians, including 22 children, with another 53 injured.[24]

Cluster munition casualties

No cluster munition remnants casualties were reported in Somalia in 2022.[25] The total number of casualties is unknown. In 2014, Somalia recognized that there are cluster munition victims in the country, with mostly unmet needs.[26] SEMA reported in 2019–2021 that “a number of victims have been registered in the UNMAS database for Somalia, subsequently handed over to SEMA, which needs verification as part of a National Mine Victim Survey which SEMA is planning to conduct if funding is secured.”[27] 

COORDINATION 

Summary table[28]

Note: SEMA=Somali Explosives Management Authority.

ADDRESSING THE IMPACT

Clearance

Highlights from 2022

In October 2022, SEMA convened a workshop alongside the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining (GICHD), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and other operators, to assess the sustainable development outcomes of mine action in Somalia.[29] It was found that the impact of land release has extended beyond mine-affected communities, benefiting infrastructure projects and improving access to water and agricultural land near the border with Ethiopia for internally displaced persons (IDPs) and nomadic pastoralists.[30]

In April 2023, Somalia submitted a revised, detailed, and costed Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 workplan, outlining its plans for clearance up to October 2027 in accessible areas.[31] Somalia estimated that as of April 2023, only 27% (or US$6.2 million) of the total required budget ($23 million) for implementation of the workplan had been secured.[32]

Management and coordination

Management and coordination overview

SEMA was formed in 2013 as the national mine action authority, under the oversight of the Ministry of Internal Security.[33] SEMA has offices in each of the five mine-affected Federal Member States: Galmudug, Hirshabelle, Jubaland, Puntland, and South-West.[34] Operational responsibilities are decentralized, while at the federal level SEMA coordinates and regulates the mine action sector. SEMA has received technical assistance from UNMAS, Norwegian People’s Aid (NPA), the HALO Trust, GICHD, and UNDP on implementation of the national strategy and standards, information and quality management, and operations. A joint Capacity Development Framework was developed to facilitate support to SEMA from 2022–2027.[35]

Ongoing armed conflict, and limited funds provided by the Federal Government, have resulted in SEMA being solely dependent on foreign financing and assistance.[36]

Legislation and standards

As of the end of 2022, SEMA had not been formally incorporated into the budget or legislation under the Federal Government, impeding its access to national resources.[37]

In 2018, SEMA began the process of revising Somalia’s national mine action standards in line with the International Mine Action Standards (IMAS). The revised set of standards has been awaiting approval by the Ministry of Internal Security since 2020.[38] SEMA reported that the delay in reviewing the standards may be due to inadequate funding for stakeholder meetings, political unrest and governmental changes, and a shortage of international technical experts.[39]

In 2022, all clearance operators were reported to have Standard Operating Procedures in place for manual mine clearance, battle area clearance (BAC), explosive ordnance disposal (EOD), and non-technical survey, aligned with the existing national mine action standards.[40]

Strategies and policies

Somalia reported that the revised version of its National Mine Action Strategic Plan had been approved by the Ministry of Internal Security in September 2020.[41]

Information management

NPA provided assistance to SEMA’s Puntland office by setting up and managing a state-level Information Management System for Mine Action (IMSMA) database, and training staff.[42]

In 2022, GICHD assisted SEMA to migrate the national mine action database from IMSMA Next Generation to IMSMA Core, incorporating clearance data reported by all operators in a consistent manner. This transition is expected to improve the accuracy and quality of data.[43]

Gender and diversity

In 2020, gender sensitization training was provided to SEMA staff.[44] Yet SEMA has reported challenges in achieving gender equality in mine action, due to patriarchal societal norms and consideration of clan affiliation in team composition. Mine action operators are contractually obliged to provide equal opportunities to diverse community groups in Somalia, and to collect age- and gender-disaggregated data on their programs.[45]

Clearance operators

Clearance operators during 2022 included UNMAS implementing partner Ukroboronservice (UOS), and the HALO Trust, which both operated in border areas in Galmudug, Hirshabelle, Jubaland, and South-West states to conduct survey, EOD, and mine clearance. NPA conducted non-technical survey and established a police EOD team to manage residual risk in Puntland state. It was reported that NPA would withdraw from operations in Somalia by May 2023.[46]

Land release: antipersonnel landmines 

2022 land release overview: Landmines[47]

Note: APM=antipersonnel mines.

*Data was reported by Somalia for the period January 2022–February 2023. Data on land reduced/cancelled was not disaggregated.

Between January 2022 and February 2023, Somalia reported releasing a total of 5.69km² of land contaminated by antipersonnel mines, antivehicle mines, and ERW. Of this, 5.56km² was cleared, resulting in 360 antipersonnel landmines destroyed. In 2021, just 0.25km² was cleared and 13 antipersonnel mines destroyed.[48]

In 2022, the HALO Trust and NPA were reported to have conducted survey in Puntland state. The HALO Trust conducted technical survey on 8,494m² of suspected hazardous area (SHA) from February to April 2022.[49] NPA completed non-technical survey in southern Puntland, in all districts with reported legacy minefields. This included 613 villages in Burtinle, Galdogob, Galkacyo, Garowe, Eyl, and Jariban—with 52 found to be affected by unexploded ordnance (UXO), including antipersonnel mines. The survey identified 188 mine/ERW hazards, across 7.15km², representing approximately half the total area recorded in a previous survey.[50]

In 2023, the HALO Trust started non-technical survey activities in Galmudug state. Somalia is prioritizing non-technical survey in 2023–2027 to better define the extent of contamination, and plans to expand survey to Jubaland and South-West states. Priority is to be given to areas with a history of mine contamination in the accessible districts of Elbarde and Beledweyne (Hirshabelle state), Dhusamareb and Galdogob (Galmudug), Dollo and Luuq (Jubaland), and Dhabad (Puntland). Somalia reported that areas currently inaccessible due to the presence of NSAGs will be gradually included in tasking for survey and clearance when possible.[51]

Five-year landmine clearance: 2018­–2022[52]

 Note: APM=antipersonnel mines; N/R=not reported.

Progress on antipersonnel mine clearance has been slow due to the mixed and scattered nature of the contamination. Yet significant progress has been reported in recent years. Since the start of 2020, more than 15km² has been released, with 374 antipersonnel mines destroyed.[53]

Somalia’s flat topology and soft soil type was reported to be suitable for land release activities, despite diverse vegetation. Adverse weather conditions, and concerns of nomadic populations regarding vegetation removal, may slightly impact progress in specific contaminated areas.[54]

Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 clearance deadline

Summary of Article 5 clearance deadline extension request(s)[55]

*Provided funding is secured for 2025–2027. This does not include unsurveyed and inaccessible areas.

In 2021, Somalia submitted a request for a five-year extension to its initial Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 deadline of 1 October 2022. The request was granted by States Parties, setting a new deadline of 1 October 2027. Somalia’s workplan outlines two phases: Phase 1 from September 2021–October 2022; and Phase 2 from October 2022–October 2027. In April 2023, Somalia submitted an updated workplan for Phase 2, with survey and clearance of 55.46km² CHA and 68.76km² SHA planned to be completed in 2027, dependent on international funding.[56]

Land release: cluster munition remnants

No clearance of cluster munition remnants was reported in 2019–2022.[57] Somalia reported in 2022 that a more accurate estimate of its contamination was achieved following non-technical survey, though no area was reported as cancelled.[58]

Convention on Cluster Munitions Article 4 clearance deadline

Summary of Article 4 clearance deadline extension request(s)

 Note: N/A=not applicable.

It is unlikely that Somalia will meet its Convention on Cluster Munitions Article 4 clearance deadline of 1 March 2026. As of the end of 2022, contaminated areas requiring survey and clearance remained inaccessible amid ongoing armed conflict.^[59] Somalia reported no progress, citing lack of financial resources, with plans for a nationwide survey postponed until 2023.^[60]

Land release: other ordnance

Land release and clearance of ERW progressed steadily. Between January 2021 and February 2023, Somalia reported to have released a total of 15.98km² contaminated by ERW, including 9.96km² through BAC and EOD spot tasks. ERW represented more than 99% of all ordnance destroyed over this period (97,272 out of a total of 97,886 items destroyed).[61]

Security issues

Access to contaminated areas is constrained by ongoing inter-communal tensions, and NSAG presence, particularly in the Middle Jubba region, in Jubaland state. To mitigate security risks for deminers, operators are reported to have increased their cooperation with local elders and recruited individuals from specific clans within their regions respective regions.[62]

Risk education

Management and coordination

Management and coordination overview

SEMA coordinates risk education through a dedicated department, at federal and state levels.[63] SEMA also provides oversight and support to the Explosive Hazards Area of Responsibility, under the Protection Cluster, which in 2022 included six operational partners: one local NGO, four international NGOs, and UNMAS.[64]

Legislation and standards

Somalia’s national risk education standards were revised in November 2020 and aligned with IMAS 12.10 on Risk Education, with approval pending.[65] SEMA has reported that national standards on risk education for IEDs, including improvised mines, will be considered.[66]

Strategies and policies

Risk education is included within the National Mine Action Strategic Plan and the 2022–2027 Article 5 workplan.[67]

Risk education operators

In 2022, international risk education operators included the Danish Refugee Council, Mines Advisory Group (MAG), NPA, and UOS. In Puntland state, NPA combined risk education with non-technical survey. UOS provided risk education in Galmudug, Hirshabelle, Jubaland, and South-West states, alongside clearance and community liaison activities. MAG delivered risk education for returnees in Jubaland and Puntland. The Danish Refugee Council focused on risk education and capacity-building for the national police.

Among local NGOs, the Jubaland Mine Action Network provided risk education in Jubaland and Galmudug states, partnering MAG, NPA, UNMAS, and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). The South-West Mine Action Consortium, Hiran and Shabelle Mine Action Consortium, and Central Somalia Mine Action Consortium had the capacity to implement risk education activities, but did not have any funded projects in 2022.[68]

Beneficiary data 

Beneficiary data in 2022[69]

*Beneficiary figures reported by SEMA are assumed to include beneficiaries across all operators.

In 2022, a total of 75,039 beneficiaries were reached through risk education activities.[70] Boys, identified as an at-risk group, represented 42% of all beneficiaries. MAG and the HALO Trust reported reaching 14,195 and 10,500 beneficiaries, respectively.[71]

Target groups

In Somalia, IDPs, pastoralists, nomadic communities, and children were identified as at-risk groups. Pastoralists and IDPs move into new areas frequently, and may be unaware of risks.[72] Travelers in Galgadug and Mudgug were also considered target groups due to the presence of mines. Nomadic communities, especially in border areas, faced the impact of chronic drought and were forced to traverse new territories, placing them at risk. Ongoing conflicts in Somalia are likely to add to the ERW threat in new areas.[73]

Delivery methods

Risk education was coupled with land release activities and included emergency, community-based, and school-based sessions.[74] In 2022, the HALO Trust provided risk education in areas where mine/ERW incidents had occurred, to prevent further incidents.[75] Operators used flyers, banners, posters, and radio messaging, alongside interpersonal sessions.[76] MAG incorporated safety messages into theatre performances and ran a campaign on Facebook.[77] Risk education was provided in schools in Somalia in 2022, but not as part of the formal curriculum.[78] 

Messaging covered antipersonnel mines, antivehicle mines, and ERW.[79] SEMA reported that accessible areas contaminated by cluster munition remnants were reached by operators.[80] The HALO Trust reported that cluster munition remnants were included in its materials in 2022.[81]

Victim assistance 

Highlights from 2022

In April 2022, Somalia launched its National Action Plan on Victim and Disability Assistance 2020–2025.[82] In 2023, SEMA reported that there was no national budget for victim assistance services, and that international support and funding was required to ensure implementation.[83]

Management and coordination

Management and coordination overview 

Victim assistance coordination restarted in 2019, after the first and only previous coordination meeting was held in 2014. In 2020–2021, final consultations were held with disabled persons’ organizations (DPOs) and relevant government ministries on the national action plan.[84]

Assistance to mine/ERW survivors and other persons with disabilities was covered in the 2022 Humanitarian Response Plan for Somalia, having also been included in 2020–2021.[85]

Legislation and standards

National standards on victim assistance were pending approval, as of the end of 2022.^[86]

Strategies and policies

A scheduled mid-term review of the national action plan for 2020–2025 is likely to have been delayed, due to the late approval of the plan.[87] The review is planned to include stakeholders from the mine action and disability sectors in Somalia.

Information management

SEMA records mine/ERW casualties and incidents in Somalia, but the data lacks consistency and accuracy.[88]

Legal frameworks or policies on disability inclusion 

After Somalia ratified the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), the National Disability Agency was formed in August 2020 and became active in July 2021.[89] 

The Ministry of Women and Human Rights has published an action plan for implementation of the CRPD in 2020–2023, in coordination with SEMA.[90] A bill for the National Policy on Disability was presented before the Cabinet by the ministry in September 2020.[91] No further progress was reported in 2022, hindering the implementation of the national action plan.

Victim assistance providers

Victim assistance providers in Somalia included the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Norwegian Red Cross, and the Somali Red Crescent Society. In 2022, these operators provided medical care, rehabilitation, psychosocial support, and socio-economic inclusion for mine/ERW survivors.[92] Humanity & Inclusion (HI) provided rehabilitation, as well as mental health and psychosocial support services, in Banadir, Mogadishu, and in Somaliland.[93]

Needs assessment

It was estimated that rehabilitation services (including physical therapy, occupational therapy, and provision of assistive devices), meet only around 20% of current needs.[94] Existing health services are also insufficient, especially in rural and conflict-affected areas, with services often too expensive for many people to access.[95]

In June 2023, SEMA reported that mine/ERW questions were incorporated into an ongoing survey being carried out by the National Disability Agency in the five Federal Member States and in Banadir. This may allow the identification of more survivors requiring assistance.[96]

The ICRC reported that mapping of disability service providers was undertaken in 2022.[97]

Medical care and rehabilitation

Somali Red Crescent Society and community volunteers, and ambulance responders, received first-aid training in Galkayo.[98] The ICRC supported emergency surgery at two hospitals in Mogadishu, and at hospitals in Baidoa and Kismayo. In 2022, a total of 99 mine/ERW victims were admitted for surgery by the ICRC, up from 59 during 2021; while 60 survivors received physical rehabilitation at ICRC-supported centers, down from 203 the previous year.[99]

In 2022, the ICRC and the Norwegian Red Cross continued to support rehabilitation centers in Mogadishu and Galkayo, providing training for physiotherapists and for prosthetics and orthotics professionals.[100] Treatment costs were covered for some patients through an ICRC pilot program, while the Norwegian Red Cross covered the running costs of the centers.[101]

Socio-economic and psychosocial inclusion

Persons with disabilities in Somalia, including mine/ERW survivors, remain among the most vulnerable in the population and are at risk of social exclusion.[102]

In 2022, the ICRC supported people from conflict-affected households, including female breadwinners, enabling them to run small businesses and pursue economic activities such as fishing, beekeeping, and agriculture. Some livelihood support projects, however, had to be suspended due to drought.[103]