Somaliland

Mine Ban Policy

The Republic of Somaliland proclaimed independence from Somalia in 1991 after the fall of the government of Siad Barre. However, Somaliland is not recognized by the international community as an independent state, thus it is not in a position to accede to the Mine Ban Treaty. Somaliland has applied for membership to the African Union.

Somaliland authorities have frequently expressed their commitment to a mine ban since 1997. On 1 March 1999 the House of Representatives passed a non-binding resolution calling for a total ban on landmines. In November 2004 the President of Somaliland spoke of “our already declared unilateral compliance” with the Mine Ban Treaty.^[1] However, no formal measures have been taken yet to prohibit antipersonnel mines.

Somaliland does not produce mines and there have been no indications that it has exported, acquired or used antipersonnel mines since proclaiming independence.

Officials have acknowledged the existence of stockpiles of antipersonnel mines, but have not provided information on numbers or types. Somaliland has, in the past, periodically sent stockpiled antipersonnel mines and antivehicle mines, among other weapons and ammunition, for destruction to demining organizations operating in Somaliland, including Danish Demining Group (DDG) and HALO Trust. Private citizens have also turned in mines for destruction. However, no antipersonnel mines from stocks held by the state, or privately, were sent for destruction in 2006.^[2]

In November 2006 DDG reported that it had launched phase one of the Village Stockpile Disposal Initiative, together with Danish Refugee Council and a local NGO, Haqsoor. DDG states, “The aim of the project is to use an advocacy component through workshops and community meetings to convince villagers to give up their stocks of ERW [explosive remnants of war] for disposal by DDG, other mine action NGOs and the UNDP-sponsored Police EOD [explosive ordnance disposal] teams. It is anticipated that this process will achieve success in terms of accessing known stocks of ERW held at village level.”^[3]

Landmine and ERW Problem

Somaliland is affected by landmines and explosive remnants of war (ERW) as a result of the 1964 and 1977-1978 border wars with Ethiopia, and the 1988-1991 Civil War between the army of the Siad Barre regime and the Somali National Movement. A Landmine Impact Survey (LIS) was conducted in four regions of Somaliland in 2003, which DDG believes over-reported the scale and significance of ERW; after general survey of 121 high and medium impact sites in 2004 and 2005, DDG noted that one in five justified immediate removal from the regional database.^[4]

The extent of residual mine contamination is also disputed. According to the Somaliland Mine Action Center (SMAC), Somaliland is “heavily mined.”^[5] In contrast, DDG discontinued its mine clearance team in March 2006 as “a direct reflection of the need.”^[6] In an evaluation of European Commission-funded mine action in Africa in March-April 2007, the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining (GICHD) concluded that “UXO [unexploded ordnance] plus abandoned munitions (AXO), official stockpiles, and private stockpiles of munitions are very widespread and, through most parts of the country [Somalia as a whole], constitute a greater threat than do minefields.”^[7]

According to HALO, while “significant results have been achieved thus far, there is a requirement for continued support of mine clearance operations in Somaliland, in order to resolve the remaining mine and UXO problem in the next three to four years. In 2007, HALO intends to speed up the demining operations in Somaliland by introducing two additional mechanical mine clearance units into the programme.”^[8]

SMAC reported that of 73 explosive incidents in 2006, 56 involved UXO, 11 antipersonnel mines and six antivehicle mines.^[9] DDG 2006 data from 270 of the most affected communities included 13 incidents, of which 11 were caused by UXO and two by mines.^[10]

Mine Action Program

The Government Committee for Mine Action (the “Inter-Ministerial Committee”) is nominally the national mine action authority in Somaliland, although there is no evidence it has taken any practical steps to exert that authority. According to the UN in December 2005, a proposed strategic plan laid out the future structure for mine action.^[11] As of July 2007 no progress in this direction was evident.

The local coordination body is the Somaliland Mine Action Center, supported by the UN Development Programme (UNDP). Previously, operators have been critical of SMAC’s effectiveness, but according to its own annual report for 2006, “The SMAC is now far more proactive and taking control of mine action in Somaliland.”^[12]

SMAC continues to use version 3 of the Information Management System for Mine Action (IMSMA). Although this was upgraded to version 4, it was not expected to be fully operational until completion of the LIS Phase 3, scheduled for end-June 2007.^[13] In early 2007 HALO was coordinating with SMAC and UNDP to compare and cross-check results of the 2003 LIS with HALO’s own survey and clearance database.^[14] HALO believes that SMAC should be able to cross off all tasks completed by HALO from the LIS 2003 database.^[15]

Somaliland developed a strategic plan in 2002, which was revised following the results of Phase 1 of the LIS. A national mine action policy presented to parliament in 2004 had not been approved as of mid-2007.^[16] SMAC has developed its own standing operating procedures (SOPs) which were due to be reviewed by UNDP during 2006. HALO operates with its own SOPs in line with the international standards and approved by SMAC.^[17]

Evaluations of Mine Action

In early 2007 the GICHD conducted a mission to Somalia as part of its regional evaluation of European Commission-funded mine action in Africa.^[18] The draft report made several recommendations, including:

• UNDP/UNOPS should assist SMAC in revising its mine action strategy, continue capacity development of core local capacities and formulate an exit strategy;
• HALO should consider initiating mine clearance in Puntland focusing on the larger minefields in the border regions of Northern Mudug; and,
• DDG should scale up its pilot Village Stockpile Destruction Initiative in cooperation with the police EOD teams.^[19]

Demining

DDG and HALO have been the two main demining operators, with spot EOD tasks performed by the Somaliland police. DDG discontinued its mine clearance capacity in March 2006 to concentrate efforts on its mobile EOD teams and Village by Village Clearance Project. Between May 2003 and the end of 2006 the project disposed of 18,714 explosive items and conducted 3,586 community visits in the regions of Galbeed, Saaxil, Togdheer, Sool and Sanaag.^[20]

HALO operated eight manual/battle area clearance teams, four EOD/survey teams, three mechanical mine clearance teams, one mine risk education team and support staff during 2006-2007. It focused on high priority humanitarian tasks, including the border areas between Ethiopia. According to HALO, “there is clear evidence on the ground that mines have been lifted or harvested from the border minefields for illegal re-sale or re-use. The location and safe destruction of these mines and explosive items not only reduces casualties and provides safe land for reuse but also increases security in Somaliland and throughout the region.”^[21]

Identification, Marking and Fencing of Affected Areas

In 2006 SMAC continued to implement the Landmine Impact Survey in Sool and Sanaag provinces. Phase 3 was initiated in March 2006 and fieldwork began in September 2006. A Survey Action Center team trained senior national staff and supervised the first pre-test from 2 to 18 November 2006. The LIS fieldwork was completed on 28 June 2007.^[22]

No new marking or fencing of affected areas was reported in 2006 or early 2007.

Mine/ERW Clearance

HALO cleared 276,209 square meters of mined areas in 2006 and DDG cleared over 14 square kilometers of battle areas.

In 2007 DDG noted a continued downward trend in both the numbers of explosive items cleared and mine/UXO incidents. Its Village by Village Clearance Project conducted over 1,196 community visits in 2006, resulting in the disposal of 784 explosive devices. In the first five months of 2007, this dropped to one per community. In June 2005 DDG initiated post-clearance surveys of all tasks since the program started in 1999.^[24] This was due to be completed in 2007 allowing a final review of DDG’s Somaliland mine action program prior to its closure in March 2008.^[25]

From January to May 2007 HALO cleared 107,387 square meters of mined areas, destroying 118 antipersonnel mines, 28 antivehicle mines, 340 items of UXO and 2,390 AXO.^[26] HALO believes that “with increased capacities and sustained funding it is possible to clear Somaliland from the majority of high and medium priority minefields in the next three to four years. …a phased move of equipment and teams to Puntland and Somalia can be envisaged, if the political and security situation permits.”^[27]

In April 2007, Mines Advisory Group (MAG) began a six-month project to provide further EOD training of police teams, and ongoing operational supervision. The training course was completed on 30 July.^[28]

Mine Risk Education

As in previous years Handicap International (HI), DDG, HALO and police EOD teams were the main providers of mine risk education (MRE) during 2006-2007, working in collaboration with SMAC and other local partners. UNDP’s mine action support includes the goal of building national MRE capacity. MRE is addressed in monthly coordination meetings of all mine action operators.^[29]

In 2006 DDG, HALO and police EOD teams provided basic MRE and community liaison as part of their other mine action operations, reaching at least 50,749 people―a remarkable increase from 2005 (14,612 reached by DDG and HALO); community members reached by local committees trained by HI in 2005 and 2006 were not recorded and are missing in this total. ERW reports have been forthcoming as a result of these activities.^[30]

SMAC reported that police EOD response teams reached 17,215 people during 79 community visits in 2006. Six police officers in three new EOD teams in Awdal, Togdheer and Sanaag regions were trained in MRE by HI in August 2006.^[31]

In early 2007 HALO decided to re-focus its MRE by conducting information gathering on mine/UXO casualties and socioeconomic survey of former mined areas in order to help prioritize future clearance tasks. MRE teams continued MRE at 15 sites during the first six months of 2007, reaching 2,579 people including 869 adults and 1,710 children under 16 (948 boys and 762 girls), while also encouraging reporting of ERW and handing in of stored ordnance.^[32]

Handicap International continued its MRE program from 2005 through end of August 2006, and re-started it in June 2007 with one-year funding. The project continues to target herders aged five to 29 years in affected communities in Awdal, Togdheer, Sahil and Woqooyi Galbeed, as well as the general population. The HI project has a capacity-building component for local village committees, veterinary NGOs and MRE educators. It also uses radio broadcasts and provides printed materials for all MRE operators. An HI-initiated MRE radio program of traditionally adapted Somali drama features and safety messages is said to have reached one million listeners.^[33]

A Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices (KAP) survey was conducted by HI in 2006, with a random sample of 240 people, and results were compared with a 2002 KAP survey. Although the number of people who had actually seen mines and ERW had significantly increased (from 45 to 54 percent), knowledge of mines and safe behavior was not high and in some cases had even decreased. Eleven percent (five percent in 2002) did not know whether they live in a mine/ERW-affected area. A large majority correctly knew that grazing livestock in order to check whether an area is mined is a dangerous practice, but fewer people knew that mines are not only laid on roads (down from 75 to 43 percent). Also, 95 percent would report to the authorities if they encountered mines or ERW (increase from 88 percent in 2002).^[34]

Inadequate MRE coverage in previous years was suggested by one finding of the LIS Phase 3, that none of 10 remote districts of Somaliland (six districts in Sanaag, three in Sool, and one in Togdheer) reported receiving MRE (nor mine clearance); two communities reported marking and survey.^[35]

Landmine/ERW Casualties

In 2006 SMAC recorded 96 new mine/ERW casualties (30 killed and 66 inured) in 73 incidents; 63 casualties were children (66 percent) and 73 (76 percent) were male. ERW caused more than three-quarters of incidents (56, number of casualties unknown); whereas antipersonnel mines caused 11 incidents (15 percent) and antivehicle mines six (eight percent). Casualties were reported in all six regions: Hargeisa (31), Togdheer (29), Awdal (16), Sanaag (10), Sool (six) and Sahil (four). No demining accidents occurred in 2006.^[36] This was a slight increase from 2005 (93 casualties in 79 incidents). The higher level of casualties in fewer incidents in 2006 may be due to the 20 percent increase in ERW incidents compared to 2005. The percentage of child casualties remained constant, and alarmingly high, at 66 percent.^[37]

Casualties continued to be reported in 2007 with 29 new mine/ERW casualties (five killed, 24 injured) in 23 incidents by the end of June; 10 were female and 19 were children. Ten incidents were caused by antipersonnel mines and 13 by ERW. Most casualties occurred in Hargeisa and in Togdheer (10 each), four in Sool, three in Awdal, and one each in Sanaag and Sahil.^[38] However, there appears to be underreporting of casualties.

Data Collection

SMAC records casualty data provided by local and international NGOs using IMSMA, but data collection is not complete and operators continue to maintain their own databases. SMAC data collection priorities for 2007 were as in 2006: continue registration of all mine casualties, and “develop and implement [a] mine victim assistance database.”^[39] In early 2007 HALO decided to re-focus its MRE team’s activities to conduct information gathering on mine/ERW casualties and socioeconomic survey of former mined areas cleared by HALO.^[40]

In 2006 the Somali Demining and UXO Action Group Centre (SOMMAC) did not record any mine casualties on Somaliland territory.^[41]

The total number of mine/ERW casualties in Somaliland is not known. Data collected by SMAC between 2003 and July 2007 shows 331 casualties (86 killed and 245 injured); 64 percent were children (212).^[42]

The most comprehensive information on casualties is the Landmine Impact Survey. Phase 1 recorded 2,927 mine/UXO casualties (1,206 killed and 1,721 injured) in Awdal, Woqooyi Galbeed, Sahil and Togdheer to 2003.^[43] Phase 3 in Sool and Sanaag regions and Buuhoodle district in Todgheer region identified 89 casualties (30 killed and 59 injured) in 2005 and 2006. It indicates underreporting by SMAC in certain areas; the LIS identified 29 casualties in Sanaag region whereas SMAC only reported 15 casualties between January 2005 and December 2006; in Sool the LIS recorded 29 casualties while SMAC listed 10. However, SMAC recorded at least 59 casualties in Togdheer and the LIS identified 31. The LIS fatality rate was 34 percent (compared to 26 percent in SMAC data); 79 percent of the casualties were male. The most common activities at the time of the incident were herding (75 percent), followed by playing (10 percent). Among the 30 killed, 23 were shepherds.^[44]

In comparison, DDG recorded 40 casualties from July 2005 to the end of December 2006; 29 (or 73 percent) were related to ERW.^[45]

Survivor Assistance

Public health facilities in Somaliland with the capacity to assist landmine casualties are minimal, with poorly equipped and staffed hospitals. Emergency evacuations can take a long time and are generally carried out by mine action operators.^[46] Phase 3 of the LIS showed that of 59 recent survivors only 17 percent received emergency care and none received physical rehabilitation, not even crutches, although 33 people suffered amputations (56 percent). In Sanaag and Sool in particular, there is a lack of healthcare facilities; poor infrastructure and roads further limit access. The situation is exacerbated by scarce international assistance. ^[47]

The physical rehabilitation sector is run with substantial support from international NGOs. In a 2005 evaluation, infrastructure, staff capacity and coverage was considered to be sufficient to meet the needs of people with disabilities, but recommended that geographical coverage and number of people assisted be increased .^[48] This reflects the initial findings of the LIS Phase 3.^[49]

According to the LIS, one of the biggest challenges for survivors is the inability to continue livelihood activities.^[50] Economic reintegration programs for people with disabilities are very limited.^[51]

The Somaliland constitution states that the government is responsible for providing health and other services to vulnerable groups, including people with disabilities.^[52] It is unknown if this is implemented.

Survivor Assistance Strategic Framework

SMAC is responsible for coordinating mine action, including survivor assistance in Somaliland. Its strategic objective for 2006 was to identify regional hospitals capable of assisting mine/ERW casualties and providing them with technical support. However, little progress appears to have been made due to funding constraints.^[53] Objectives for 2007 reverted to the development and implementation of a mine/ERW casualty and assistance database, registration of all mine/ERW related incidents and continued capacity-building.^[54]

Three international NGOs, DDG, HALO and HI, provide ad hoc assistance to mine/ERW survivors as part of their integrated mine action programs. At least 2,551 people with disabilities and war-injured were assisted in 2006, including an unknown number of mine/ERW survivors. Emergency medical assistance was provided to at least 40 war-injured people at Hargeisa General Hospital with assistance from UNICEF.^[55] Hargeisa Rehabilitation Center assisted 1,118 new patients in 2006, but did not report assisting any mine/ERW survivors.^[56] The Somali Red Crescent Society rehabilitation center assisted 648 people with prosthetic/orthotic devices and repairs; 1,393 people received physiotherapy (possibly including the 648 above).^[57]

Hargeisa General Hospital, the largest in Somaliland, is one of the only hospitals capable of treating mine/ERW and conflict casualties. The Edna Adan Maternity and Teaching Hospital, also in Hargeisa, is well-served by roads and public transport and so functions well for emergency referral. It is the first non-profit health facility in Somaliland, and costs for patients are minimal.^[58] HALO occasionally provides emergency assistance to mine/ERW casualties; each clearance team has trained paramedics, an ambulance and medical kits.^[59]

The Norwegian Red Cross (NRC) supports the Somali Red Crescent Society (SRCS) rehabilitation center in Hargeisa. In 2006 the center’s physiotherapist resigned and a suitable replacement had not started by July 2007; one person will start physiotherapy training in late 2007. As a result of the 2005 external evaluation, several improvements have been made to increase patient satisfaction and the speed of service delivery. The number of people assisted and orthotic/prosthetic devices produced in 2006 increased slightly compared to 2005.^[60]

In 2006, Disability Action Network services in the Hargeisa Rehabilitation Center, with support from HI, included physical rehabilitation and social reintegration as well as management training. Physiotherapy services increased by 25 percent and device production by 15 percent compared to 2005. By July 2007 European Commission (EC) and UK support had ceased; a cost-sharing policy was implemented instead.^[61]

HI provides support to people with disabilities as part of an integrated program that includes MRE and support to the Somaliland National Disability Forum, the umbrella organization for disability in Somaliland. The main challenges to adequate service provision for people with disabilities is said to be lack of coordination between disability organizations and the relative inexperience of the forum.^[62]

Funding and Assistance

In 2006 international donations totalling US$2,931,329 (€2,333,303) for mine action in Somaliland were reported by seven countries, a decrease of 49 percent from 2005 ($3,729,030 from six countries).^[63]

Donors reporting funding in 2006 to HALO for mine clearance were:

• Canada: C$56,900 ($50,174)^[64]
• Ireland: €360,000 ($452,268)^[65]
• Finland: €200,000 ($251,260)^[66]
• Netherlands: €513,481 ($645,086)^[67]
• Norway NOK650,000: ($101,400)^[68]
• UK £215,200 ($396,700).^[69]

France reported donating €4,818 ($6,053) to HI for the Hargeisa Rehabilitation Center.^[70] The EC contributed $1,028,388, consisting of $539,478 to UNDP for Phase 3 of the LIS and $488,910 to UNDP for capacity-building of SMAC.^[71]

The 2006 end-year review of the UN’s Portfolio of Mine Action Projects reported that Somalia received 54 percent ($2,615,383) of funds requested through the appeal process in 2006, comprising $974,795 for projects in Somalia and $1,640,588 for projects in Somaliland.^[72] The UN Mine Action Service (UNMAS) noted that more resources were needed to support the Somaliland Mine Action Center.^[73]

National Contribution to Mine Action

In 2006 UNDP informed the Landmine Monitor that SMAC should be fully supported by the government of Somaliland by 2010.^[74] The government contributed $15,000 to the operation of SMAC in 2006.^[75]