The
term mine awareness (or mine-risk education as it is otherwise known) is used to
describe programs that seek to reduce deaths and injuries from landmines and
unexploded ordnance (UXO) through information, education and dialogue with
at-risk communities. The primary objective of mine awareness is to promote safe
(or safer) behavior among communities living or working amid mine and UXO
contamination. In this, it should be distinguished from campaigns designed to
raise general public awareness of the impact of mines and UXO and the consequent
plight of affected communities (although such information and advocacy campaigns
may overlap with mine awareness, and even sometimes serve a double
function).
In this Landmine Monitor reporting period, substantial resources
have been committed to mine awareness programs in Kosovo and south Lebanon;
elsewhere a number of programs have reported difficulty in obtaining funding.
New programs have been initiated in Burundi and Kisangani in the eastern
Democratic Republic of Congo. Additional activities have been carried out in
Eritrea and Ethiopia, following the signature of the peace agreement, and in
Georgia. Handicap International is conducting an assessment of its program
tools in six countries. UNICEF has announced the development of mine awareness
standards and accompanying guidelines for monitoring and evaluation.
Key Actors
As
with the previous reporting period, the principal mine awareness actors
internationally have been UNICEF, the International Committee of the Red Cross
(ICRC), Handicap International (HI) Belgium and France, the International Save
the Children Alliance, and Mines Advisory Group (MAG). In Central America, the
Organization of American States (OAS) has been active in a number of affected
countries. Norwegian People’s Aid (NPA) and the Vietnam Veterans of
America Foundation have implemented programs in Kosovo, which has also seen the
emergence of relatively new mine awareness actors, such as the Association for
Aid and Relief-Japan, Caritas, Danish Church Aid, HMD Response, INTERSOS,
Islamic Relief Worldwide, and the Mines Awareness
Trust.[36] HALO Trust, previously
unenthusiastic about mine awareness, has worked in conjunction with a Japanese
NGO that carried out awareness and community liaison activities. The
International Protection Force, KFOR, has also conducted mine awareness in
schools in a “soldier to child” program.
UNICEF reports that it
is “currently to varying degrees undertaking, supporting or planning mine
action programs, mostly mine awareness education and advocacy, in 28 countries:
Albania, Angola, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Burundi, Cambodia, Chad,
Colombia, Croatia, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Kosovo),
Guatemala, Guinea-Bissau, Kyrgyzstan, Lao People’s Democratic Republic
(Laos), Lebanon, Mauritania, Nicaragua, Russian Federation (North Caucasus),
Panama, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Syria (Golan Heights), Sudan, Tajikistan, Thailand
and Uzbekistan. In 2001, UNICEF has for the first time deployed staff directly
to a UN and national mine action program, in Eritrea and Ethiopia
respectively.”[37]
HI-France
has implemented or supported mine-risk education (MRE) in seven countries:
Angola, Bosnia and Herzegovina (through a local NGO, APM), Ethiopia,
Guinea-Bissau (through a local NGO, Andes), Mozambique, Senegal, and Thailand.
The program in Ethiopia closed on 1 June after objectives were
reached.[38] HI-Belgium has been
implementing mine awareness programs in Afghanistan, Cambodia, and the
Democratic Republic of Congo
(Kisangani).[39]
In 2000, working
directly or through National Red Cross/Red Crescent Societies, the ICRC
conducted mine awareness programs in Afghanistan, Albania, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Croatia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Lebanon, Nicaragua, the northern
Caucasus region of the Russian Federation (including Chechnya), and the regions
of Kosovo and Nagorno-Karabakh. In addition, data collection began in Iraq and
on the Tajikistan/Uzbekistan border to determine whether there is a need for
mine/UXO-awareness programs. New mine awareness programs were started in
Eritrea, Ethiopia, Georgia, Lebanon, the Russian Federation (Chechnya), and the
region of Kosovo.[40]
Regional Summaries of Mine Awareness Programs
During
the reporting period, attention and funding has concentrated on programs in
southern Lebanon and especially Kosovo where more than 20 organizations and
bodies have carried out mine awareness during the past two
years.[41] Other organizations, for
example HI-Belgium, have complained about lack of funding in other contexts for
their field programs.[42]
In
Africa, programs have been conducted in Angola, Burundi, the Democratic
Republic of Congo (DRC), Djibouti (including for refugees from Somaliland),
Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinea-Bissau, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda,
Senegal, Somaliland,[43] Sudan
(including in the south), and Uganda. A UNICEF needs assessment in Chad in July
2000 recommended the establishment of an integrated community liaison and UXO
disposal initiative in the east of the country, but to date no activities have
yet been implemented, reportedly because of funding
difficulties.[44]
In 1999, UNICEF
commissioned an in-depth evaluation of its mine awareness program in Huila and
Uige provinces of Angola; the evaluation was jointly funded by UNICEF, CIET and
Canadian DFAIT. Although the findings were broadly positive, the evaluation
report noted that students who had received mine awareness under the program
were less likely than other children to stay out of a known mined area, to
recognize high-risk sites, and to tell their family members what to do if one
encounters a mine. Changes to the mine awareness program as a result included
the adaptation of messages to encourage behavior change rather than providing
information on merely the dangers of mines, the development of a simple
monitoring tool, and the development of information and materials in local
languages.[45]
In March 2001,
in the DRC, HI Belgium launched a six-month mine action program to prepare,
coordinate and implement a clearance and mine awareness program in the Kisangani
area. In Uganda, mine awareness programs in Gulu and the neighboring districts
were suspended in October 2000 due to the Ebola outbreak in the area. Mine
awareness activities covering northern and western Uganda were resumed in April
after the area was declared free of the disease.
In Mozambique, HI has been
temporarily given back responsibility for coordinating mine awareness from the
National Institute for Demining, which lacks the capacity and resources to do
it. In collaboration with the Ministry of Education, mine awareness education
was introduced into the national curriculum and from 2001, it is being taught in
schools. In Malawi, there may be a need for mine awareness targeting civilians
living along the border with Mozambique.
In the Americas, mine
awareness programs have been carried out in Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala,
Honduras, Nicaragua and, to a limited extent, in Peru. In Colombia, a
government-funded pilot project on mine awareness and victim assistance is being
implemented in three of the most mine-affected departments in the country
between June and December 2001. It aims to establish a database on mine
casualties and mine-affected communities and to start building local mine action
capacity, including the implementation of mine awareness programs for at-risk
communities.
The Nicaraguan Red Cross, supported by UNICEF and ICRC,
continues with its “child to child” mine awareness program in
communities along the northern border with Honduras. The program is discarding
the use of the notorious Superman and Wonder Woman
comics.[46] In April 2001, the
Organization of American States and UNICEF jointly convened a workshop of all
actors working in the area of prevention in mine action to coordinate messages
and approaches in mine awareness in Nicaragua.
In Asia, significant
mine awareness programs have continued in Afghanistan, Cambodia, Laos, and Sri
Lanka, and smaller scale activities have been conducted in Thailand and
Vietnam.
The mine awareness education program in Afghanistan currently
consists of 150 mine awareness trainers and approximately 2,000 community
volunteers. Each NGO implements its awareness activities using a number of
different approaches to presenting a core set of information. In the year 2000,
more than one million civilians reportedly received mine awareness education in
various parts of the country.
In Cambodia, mine awareness is undergoing a
major shift in focus, following a lead from MAG. The emphasis is now shifting
to community liaison, in which information and education activities about the
danger of mines take a back seat. This new approach reflects the already high
level of awareness among the civilian population and the recognition that
economic and other survival pressures will not be solved by the mere provision
of information. In Laos, a small-scale evaluation of mine awareness
commissioned by UNICEF was carried out in August 2000.
In Europe, mine
awareness programs have been implemented in Abkhazia, Albania, Armenia,
Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Georgia, Kosovo, Nagorno-Karabakh,
and the Russian Federation (Chechnya and Ingushetia).
In Azerbaijan, UNICEF
had made a public statement in May 2000 about its intention to conduct a mine
awareness program, but no work was subsequently undertaken through December
2000. In February 2001, UNICEF was reported to have announced that it was
beginning a new mine awareness program designed for 800 teachers, 500 health
officials, and 200 representatives of public organizations, and that the program
would be carried out jointly with the Azerbaijan National Agency for Mine Action
(АNАМА). On 8 February 2001, the Azerbaijan Campaign to
Ban Landmines and other public organizations sent an open letter to UNICEF and
ANAMA expressing their concerns about the awareness
program.[47]
In Albania, in
June 2000, an assessment mission was carried out jointly by the ICRC and a mine
clearance NGO to determine the extent of the mine/UXO problem in the three most
contaminated districts.[48] Through
contacts with the relevant authorities in Tirana, the ICRC has helped the NGO
raise funds for setting up demining programs directly linked to the Albanian Red
Cross/ICRC mine awareness programs so as to respond to the needs of affected
communities.[49] The
community-based mine awareness program is also closely linked to programs
providing assistance for mine victims. The ICRC has organized transportation for
mine victims from northern Albania to the rehabilitation center in Tirana and
has arranged for the center to fit amputees with
prostheses.[50]
In Croatia,
following the receipt of funds from Canada, the GICHD has been requested by the
Croatian Mine Action Center to conduct an evaluation in September 2001 to look
at the state of mine awareness.[51]
As a result of the recent fighting in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia,
the ICRC conducted a needs assessment in June 2001 in order to assess the extent
of the UXO problem. A UXO awareness program is reportedly being developed by
the ICRC in collaboration with the Macedonian Red
Cross.[52]
In Kosovo, after the
early proliferation of mine awareness programs, the UN Mine Action Coordination
Center (MACC) reinforced its coordinating role to include accreditation of mine
awareness organizations working in Kosovo. In 2000, it became a MACC
requirement that mine awareness be included as an element of all clearance
tasks, on the basis that awareness has a role before, during and after
clearance. This role is fulfilled by “Mine Action Support
Teams.”[53] All mine
awareness organizations were already required to meet specific accreditation
standards prior to project implementation. The MACC monitors mine awareness
programs and maintains a database that helps investigation of new casualties and
future planning, and feeds into the Information Management System for Mine
Action (IMSMA) Mine Awareness Module.
In Central Asia, in June-July 2001, the
GICHD conducted a mine awareness and advocacy assessment mission on behalf of
the UNICEF Area Office in Almaty. The assessment covered three
countries—Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan—but as of going to
press the findings and recommendations of the mission were not publicly
available. The ICRC was planning to conduct a mine awareness needs assessment
in Tajikistan in summer 2001 using expertise from its Moscow
delegation.
In the Middle East and North Africa, programs have been
implemented in Iran (in Kurdistan province), Iraq (Iraqi Kurdistan), Jordan,
Kuwait, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria (including the Golan Heights) and Yemen. In
Lebanon, following Israel’s withdrawal from the south, a number of actors
including Hezbollah, the ICRC, the Landmines Resource Center, the Lebanese Red
Cross, Rädda Barnen, UNESCO and UNICEF have conducted mine awareness
activities, including emergency interventions. In Libya, it is reported that
the authorities have provided mine awareness training that may include training
in mine clearance.
In Egypt, mine awareness activities by the Landmine
Struggle Center, the sole NGO conducting mine awareness education in affected
areas, have been curtailed due to lack of funds. The ICRC has started
collecting data on mine and UXO casualties in southern Iraq as a preliminary
step toward defining an appropriate mine awareness strategy. In 2000, the ICRC
held discussions with the local authorities and the Iraqi Red Crescent on the
object of the data collection, on future plans for mine awareness activities and
in an effort to reach an agreement with the government and the next step was to
be an in-depth needs assessment, scheduled for July 2001. In the Western
Sahara, a mine awareness education program conducted by NPA ended in May 2000.
According to the UN Peace Plan, the Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees
(UNHCR) will be responsible for providing mine awareness prior to the planned
repatriation of Sahrawi refugees.
International Developments
As
part of the ongoing process of professionalization of mine awareness, a number
of significant developments have taken place internationally, many led by the
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the UN focal point for mine
awareness education. In September 2000, following the adoption by the UN of the
International Guidelines on Mine and Unexploded Ordnance Awareness
Education,[54] UNICEF presented
“preview” copies of two UN Mine Awareness Training Modules to the
Second Meeting of States Parties. The training modules, which were funded by
the United States Department of State, each comprise a trainers’ guide and
resource manual. One module focuses on Mine Awareness Program Managers, who
have overall responsibility for planning and implementing mine awareness
activities in a given context. The second is devoted to the training of
“Community Facilitators”—the individuals who will actually be
conducting mine awareness activities at the community level.
In May 2001,
however, the UNICEF Global Focal Point for Landmines said that the use of the
modules had been suspended, on the basis that there had been insufficient
participation in their
development.[55] UNICEF
subsequently declared that the modules were used to train trainers in North
Caucasus in September 2000 but “are now being reviewed as part of the
development of the International Standards for Landmine and UXO Awareness/Risk
Reduction Education.”[56] At
the same time, UNICEF stated that it would “coordinate the development of
a series of simple step-by-step manuals on different aspects of mine
awareness/risk reduction education, drawing on actual examples from mine
awareness agencies and
practitioners.”[57] It is not
clear how these “how to” manuals relate to the existing resource
manuals included in the training modules.
In addition, UNICEF, which is in
the process of reviewing its mine action
strategy,[58] has announced its
intention to develop Guidelines for the Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E)
of Mine Awareness Programs and International Standards for Landmine and
UXO Awareness/Risk Reduction Education
Programs.[59] The Standards,
which will be elaborated within the context of the International Mine Action
Standards (IMAS),[60] will replace
the existing UN Guidelines and the Monitoring and Evaluation Guidelines will
become Technical Notes to the
Standards.[61] UNICEF declared its
intention to set up a working group to guide the process of standard
development; a first meeting was tentatively planned to take place in Geneva
toward the end of August 2001.[62]
The UN Mine Action Service, in cooperation with UNICEF, commissioned CARE to
prepare a Landmine and UXO Safety Handbook, and an accompanying video and
training module. These will be used to provide security briefings in affected
countries to UN staff, peacekeepers and NGOs about the dangers of landmines and
UXO.
Handicap International has also been active in promoting the development
of mine awareness, notably through the publication of its Mine Risk Education
(MRE) Guide 2001. The Guide, which is “to be considered as an
accompanying tool, covering a broad spectrum of MRE project functions and
activities[,] ... represents a distillation of Handicap International (France
& Belgium) experience in implementing this type of educational program over
a period of nearly a decade in seven countries around the
world.”[63] The Guide is
divided into four sections—“Preliminary” (exploratory
mission), “Setting up human and technical resources” (partnerships,
local personnel recruitment, training, and messages), “Deployment”
(communication, data collection, monitoring, and data base), and
“Extensions” (capacity building, assessment, and
capitalization).
On 7 March 2001, at the ICBL General Meeting, a four-year
plan for the Mine Awareness Sub-Group (of the ICBL Mine Action Working Group)
was adopted with the following objectives: to promote improvements in the
quality of mine awareness programs; to advocate for and maintain higher profile
of mine awareness in Standing Committee meetings and Meetings of States Parties
and mine action community in general; to advocate and provide guidance to the
international community as to where/what and how mine awareness is needed; and
to advocate and encourage development of more programs and improved
sustainability of programs.[64]
The Sub-Group’s agenda for the first year has been: to improve
cooperation between ICBL agencies, UNICEF, UNMAS, ICRC, and try to come up with
a joint approach at the Third Meeting of States Parties; to encourage
clarification of respective mandates and activities (UNICEF, ICRC and GICHD in
particular); to gather, synthesize and present working group members’
inputs in different fora; to launch a Code of Conduct on the sharing of mine
awareness tools, and follow it up; to serve as an alert system for all ICBL mine
awareness agencies; and to improve the sharing of information (Aden Workshop,
lessons learned, resource center database).
The Mine Ban Treaty Intersessional Process
To date, the MBT
intersessional Standing Committee (SC) meetings have played a relatively low-key
role in the development of mine awareness, which is grouped with victim
assistance as it is in Article 6 of the Mine Ban Treaty. A proposal has been
put forward to move mine awareness to the SC on Mine Clearance and Related
Technologies;[65] the Third Meeting
of States Parties will decide whether or not to approve this. The ICBL Mine
Awareness Sub-Group has expressed a wish for more time to be accorded in the SC
meetings to discussing mine
awareness;[66] the co-chairs and
co-rapporteurs of the respective SC will have to decide how to proceed. During
the May 2001 SC meetings, UNICEF organized a first interagency mine awareness
user focus group (UFG) under UN Mine Action Service (UNMAS) auspices. The
originally stated objectives of the UFG were to “provide a mechanism for
inter-agency cooperation, in order to support the development of: better quality
mine awareness/risk reduction programs; greater capacity to respond to mine
awareness/risk reduction needs, especially in emergencies; models of mine action
in which all components are integrated, mutually reinforcing, and sustainable;
links between mine action and other sectors of humanitarian and development
work.”[67] It was planned to
convene the second meeting of the group, subsequently renamed the Mine Awareness
Working Group and convened as a subcommittee of the Steering Committee on Mine
Action, in Managua around the Third Meeting of States
Parties.[68]
The Use of Media in Mine Awareness
Increasing attention
has been paid in 2000-2001 to the use of media, tools and materials in mine
awareness. These are often the backbone of any program, despite doubts as to
their pedagogic effectiveness and cost efficiency. In November 2000, with a
view to addressing these wider strategic issues, the Geneva International Center
for Humanitarian Demining (GICHD) initiated a study of the use of media and
materials in mine awareness programs, focusing on three
countries/contexts—Cambodia, Kosovo, and Nicaragua. It is expected that
the study, which is funded by the US Department of State, will be published by
the end of 2001.
On 19-22 February 2001, Rädda Barnen (Save the Children
Sweden) organized in Aden, Yemen, an International Workshop on the Design of
Materials, Resources and Other Media in Mine Awareness Programs (the Aden
Workshop). The Aden Workshop, which was attended by 35 participants from 20
countries, sought to discuss the design of all forms of media (that is, all
tools and resources, and not only mass media) used in mine awareness programs.
Through a combination of presentations, working groups and plenary discussions,
the workshop sought to exchange experiences, draw together lessons learned and
identify unmet needs, with a view to strengthening the effectiveness of future
programming.[69]
A summary report
of the workshop identified 14 key lessons, including that community
participation in mine awareness is essential to the effectiveness and the
sustainability of the program; adaptation of materials from one context to
another is not recommended; field-testing of resources, tools, media and
materials is essential prior to their widespread dissemination; and an effective
improvement in mine awareness programs demands greater coordination and
operational support internationally and
locally.[70]
HI informed the Aden
Workshop of progress in its ongoing in-house evaluation of mine risk education
tools from its programs in Afghanistan, Angola, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Ethiopia, Mozambique, and Senegal. The evaluation is looking at whether the
tools managed to create a sustainable educative dynamic within the community,
and considers the appropriateness of the messages and the conduit for their
transmission. Methodology is based on interviews and an analytical workshop.
The results are due to be published before the end of
2001.[71]
HI also indicated its
intention to pursue the adoption of a code of conduct on ethics on “how to
share tools,” out of a concern about the misappropriation of awareness or
educational materials.[72] A draft
code of conduct, circulated in April 2001, laid down five conditions for an
organization to share the concept of its mine awareness tools with another
organization:
The tool is transferable and will be used in a strategy adapted and
respectful of its original function;
The organization interested in all or part of the tool makes a written
request to the “parent organization;”
The organization, which borrows all or part of the tool, clearly quotes the
source on the new material;
The organization, which borrows all or part of the tool, undertakes to send
one specimen of the new tool to the “holder organization”
headquarters; and
The organization which borrows all or part of the tool, undertakes to
re-field test the tool in the new context and provides a copy of the results to
the parent organization.
[36] See “Case Study of
Kosovo,” Appendix 1, A Study of Socio-Economic Approaches to Mine
Action,” (Geneva: UN Development Program and Geneva International
Center for Humanitarian Demining, March 2001), pp. 106-107 and
114-115.
[37] UNICEF contribution
to Landmine Monitor—Appendices, undated but received 13 July
2001.
[38] Information provided
by Hugues Laurence, MRE Coordination Officer, HI,
Lyon.
[39] Information provided
by Stan Brabant and Véronique Royen, HI, Brussels, June
2001.
[40] ICRC contribution to
Landmine Monitor—Appendices, 1 June
2001.
[41] For further
information on mine awareness in Kosovo see “An Analytical Review of the
State of Mine Awareness,” in the appendices to this edition of the
Landmine Monitor.
[42]
Information provided in email from Stan Brabant, Head, Mines Unit, HI-Belgium,
24 July 2001.
[43] See Lionel
Dyck and Bob Macpherson, “An Outline for Mine Awareness Action,”
Journal of Mine Action, Issue 4.3, Fall 2000, pp.
24-28.
[44] Information provided
by UNICEF, 10 May 2001.
[45]
Aparna Swaminatham et al., “Angola Mine Awareness Evaluation:
Summary,” UNICEF, DFAIT and CIET, 31 July 2000. See the report on Angola
in this edition of the Landmine
Monitor.
[46] Letter by Esperanza
de Morales, President of the Nicaragua Red Cross, to Landmine Monitor, 12
January 2001. See ICRC, “ICRC mine/UXO awareness programs
worldwide,” at <www.icrc.org/icrceng.nsf>, updated 20 April 2001.
Information contained in the report on Nicaragua in this edition of the Landmine
Monitor.
[47] Information
contained in the report on Azerbaijan in this edition of the Landmine
Monitor.
[48] Laurence Desvignes,
“The International Committee of the Red Cross Mine/UXO Awareness
Programs,” Journal of Mine Action, Issue 4.3, Fall 2000, p.
7.
[49] See “ICRC mine/UXO
awareness programs worldwide,” available at:
<www.icrc.org/icrceng.nsf>, accessed on 19 July
2001.
[50]
Ibid.
[51] Information provided
by Eric Filippino, Head, Socio-Economic Study Group, GICHD, 15 July
2001.
[52] Information provided
by the ICRC, 11 July 2001; see report on FYROM in this edition of the Landmine
Monitor.
[53] For further details
see “An Analytical Review of the State of Mine Awareness,” in the
appendices to this edition of the Landmine
Monitor.
[54] The International
Guidelines were formally presented to the international community at the First
Meeting of States Parties in May
1999.
[55] Remarks during the
UNICEF/UNMAS User Focus Group on Mine Awareness, Geneva, 10 May
2001.
[56] UNICEF contribution to
Landmine Monitor—Appendices, undated, but received 13 July
2001.
[57]
Ibid.
[58] UNICEF has stated that
in 2001 it has “embarked on a consultative process with other mine action
stakeholders in order to further define its role and to develop a mine action
strategy. The consultation is due to be completed by the [end] of 2001, and
will complement the UN interagency mine action strategy, emergency preparedness
and response plan, as well as UNICEF’s own work in health, education and
child protection, particularly in emergencies.” UNICEF contribution to
Landmine Monitor—Appendices, undated but received 13 July
2001.
[59] UNICEF contribution to
Landmine Monitor—Appendices, undated but received 13 July 2001.
See also Landmine Monitor Report 2000, pp.
39-40.
[60] Remarks during the
UNICEF/UNMAS User Focus Group on Mine Awareness, Geneva, 10 May
2001.
[61] UNICEF contribution to
Landmine Monitor—Appendices, undated but received 13 July
2001.
[62] Email from Polly
Brennan, UNICEF Global Focal Point for Landmines, 11 July
2001.
[63] Letter from Bill
Howell and Hugues Laurenge, HI, Lyons, 20 July
2001.
[64] See
<www.icbl.org> for further information about the ICBL Mine Awareness
Sub-Group.
[65] Report of the
Meeting of the Meeting of the Standing Committee on Victim Assistance,
Socio-Economic Reintegration and Mine Awareness, 7-8 May 2001, Geneva, para.
24.
[66]
Ibid.
[67] Draft Terms of
Reference for Mine Awareness User Focus Group, attached to email from Polly
Brennan, UNICEF Global Focal Point for Landmines, 11 April
2001.
[68] Email from Polly
Brennan, UNICEF Global Focal Point for Landmines, 11 July
2001.
[69] Summary Report of the
International Workshop on the Design of Materials, Resources and Other Media in
Mine Awareness Programs, Rädda Barnen, Beirut, May
2001.
[70]
Ibid..
[71] Presentation by
Hugues Laurenge, MRE Coordination Officer, HI, Lyons, to the Aden Workshop, 19
February 2001.
[72] Ibid, 22
February 2001.